The overall goal of this dissertation research was to design, tailor and understand layered metal oxides in the context of electrocatalytic energy conversion and storage processes. To accomplish this goal the thesis research combined electrochemistry, state-of-the-art structural characterization and theoretical calculations. The hypothesis examined in this dissertation is that incorporation of metal atoms or metal ions into the sheets and/or interlayer region of the layered materials will enhance the properties of selected 2D materials for chemistry relevant to electrochemical energy conversion (i.e. electrochemical water splitting catalysis; H2O ® H2 + 1/2O2) and energy storage (i.e., as pseudocapacitors). The primary 2D layered materials investigated in this thesis research were birnessite (nominally MnO2) and Fe:Ni double hydroxide materials. Metals (cations) used to modify the geometric and electronic structure of the layered materials include Cu, Ni, and Co. Perhaps the result with broadest impact to result from the integration of experimental and theoretical studies in the thesis research was that the confinement of solvated redox active metals within the interlayer region of 2D layered materials can be used to facilitate their electron transfer reaction rates (relative to the respective unconfined metal) and energy related electrochemistry. This new paradigm for electron transfer has implications for the development of novel electrocatalytic materials for energy conversion. Research showed that the electrocatalytic activity of birnessite toward water oxidation (2H2O® 4H+ + 4e- + O2) was increased by intercalating zero valent copper into the interlayer region of the layered manganese oxide. Electrocatalytic studies showed that the Cu-modified birnessite exhibited an overpotential for water oxidation of ∼490 mV (at a current density of 10 mA cm 2) and a Tafel slope of 126 mV/decade compared to ∼700 mV (at 10 mA cm-2) and 240 mV/decade, respectively, for birnessite without copper. Impedance spectroscopy results suggested that the charge transfer resistivity of the Cu-modified sample was significantly lower than Cu-free birnessite, suggesting that Cu in the interlayer increased the conductivity of birnessite leading to an enhancement of water oxidation kinetics. It was experimentally shown that the oxygen evolution reaction (OER; water oxidation) catalysis of redox active transition metal ions (Ni2+ and Co2+) can be enhanced by individually confining them in the interlayer region of birnessite. It was demonstrated that the metal confined electrocatalyst reached a current density of 10 mA cm−2 at much lower overpotentials than pure Ni and Co oxides, and pristine birnessite. For example, with interlayer nickel and cobalt, overpotentials of 400 and 360 mV, respectively, were achieved for the OER. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations suggested that electron transfer reaction rates relevant to OER and involving Ni or Co were enhanced when the metal cations were confined in the interlayer of birnessite. The strategy of metal confinement, which was successfully applied to layered manganese oxide to improve OER activity was extended to Ni-Fe based layered double hydroxide. It was demonstrated that the electrocatalytic activity of NiFe layered double hydroxides (NiFe LDHs) for the OER could be significantly enhanced by systematic cobalt incorporation using coprecipitation and/or intercalation. Electrochemical measurements showed that cobalt modified NiFe LDH possessed an enhanced activity for the OER relative to pristine NiFe LDH. The cobalt doped NiFe LDH exhibited overpotentials in the range of 290−322 mV (at 10 mA cm−2), depending on the degree of cobalt content. The cobalt intercalated NiFe LDH achieved a current density of 10 mA cm−2 at a much lower overpotential of ∼265 mV (compared to 310 mV for NiFe LDH). With regard to energy storage, it was shown that the pseudocapacitive charge storage in layered manganese oxide was a sensitive function of interlayer composition and distance. Even though pristine layered manganese oxide shows a 7 Å interlayer spacing, the interlayer engineering via metal (Mg2+) intercalation and thermal annealing led to layered manganese oxide materials with variable interlayer spacings of 10 and 5.6 Å respectively. The interlayer expanded layered manganese oxide (10 Å interlayer spacing) exhibited an improved specific capacitance of 380 Fg-1, in comparison to synthetic Na-birnessite (specific capacitance of 200 F g-1). Dehydrated Na-birnessite (~5.6 Å spacing) produced by annealing to expel interlayer water, showed the lowest specific capacitance of 50 Fg-1. Experimental results showed that interlayer expanded manganese oxide (with intercalated Mg2+) was unstable if exposed to a solution containing only Na+ cation electrolyte. In this circumstance, the interlayer distance decreased from the expanded 10 Å value back to an interlayer distance of 7 Å and a specific capacitance of ~200 F g-1; values associated with synthetic Na-birnessite. Finally, a highly active alkaline medium hydrogen evolving electrocatalyst based on earth abundant materials (Co, Mo and P) was developed and the catalyst exhibited a ~0 V onset for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER; 2H+ + 2e- ® H2). This value was comparable to that of the precious metal platinum. The Co-Mo-P catalyst was prepared by room temperature electrodeposition and it exhibited an overpotential of ~ 25-30 mV for HER at a geometrical current density of 10 mA cm-2 in an alkaline medium. A DFT theoretical investigation revealed that a Co-Mo center acts as the water-dissociation site enhancing the alkaline medium HER. / Chemistry

No description available.

Nanoelectrochemistry explores the differences in chemical behaviour at the nanoscale as compared to the macro-scale. This thesis is concerned with nanoelectrochemistry and aims to develop and apply novel experiments for the unambiguous identification of changed electrode kinetics at the nanoscale. This is challenging since electrochemical responses are controlled by diverse factors like enhanced mass transport and adsorption as well as electron transfer kinetics. A joint computational and experimental strategy is employed. Chapter 1, 2 and 3 cover essential introductory material and basic experimental details relevant to all experiment. Fuller descriptions and details are given in the following chapters as and when needed. Chapter 4 reports the development of an electrochemical characterization method, to achieve a fast and simple quantification of the average particle size and the number of nanoparticles deposited on a glassy carbon electrode. The method consists of surface area characterization by underpotential deposition of lead particles and the determination of the amount of gold from anodic stripping in HCl. This method is also proven to be effective by comparing the results with SEM measurements. Next, in chapter 5, a generic strategy combining computation and experimental approach is developed in order to study the electron transfer kinetics of gold nanoparticles. The modelling part considers the kinetics of the electrochemical process on the bulk materials for different regions in the electrode, that is, the substrate (glassy carbon) and the nanoparticles (gold). Comparison of experimental and theoretical results enables the detection of changes in the electrode kinetics at the nanoscale. This approach is applied into the electro-oxidations of nitrite and L-ascorbic acid for gold nanoparticles from 20 - 90 nm. In the former, analysing the system shows that no change in electron transfer kinetics is involved in the process, even though a decrease of the over-potential and an increase in the peak current are observed. But these changes reflect mass transport effects, not electrocatalysis. A case where an authentic enhanced electron transfer kinetic change occurs is shown for the ascorbic acid system. Finally, in chapter 6 , the above strategy is exploited further to apply a quantitative study of electron transfer kinetics for various sizes of gold nanoparticles in the oxygen reduction reaction system in sulphuric acid at 298 K. The latter is at the heart of energy transformation techniques (fuel cells, battery and so on). Compared with the electron transfer kinetics on macro gold electrodes, there is no change at gold nanoparticles from size 5 nm to 40 nm. However, in the presence of Pb(II), a strong enhancement of electron transfer kinetics is observed on 5 nm citrate capped gold nanoparticles for ORR. On the other hand, a significant decrease of electron transfer kinetics has been found for gold nanoparticles of size 2 nm for ORR. The latter observation of strong negative electrocatalysis is also observed for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). This represents the first report of such effects with the HER system. Overall the thesis has established a rigurous, theoretical basis for evaluating electrocatalysis in nanoparticulate system.

This thesis concerns the electrochemical investigation of high-potential laccases. These multicopper oxidases are efficient electrocatalysts for the dioxygen reduction reaction. A method for stabilising laccase on a graphite electrode was established. The method involved modification of the graphite surface by diazonium coupling of a 2-anthracene molecule. A laccase ‘film’ adsorbed on this modified surface remained stable for over two months and, typically, the current density for dioxygen reduction was doubled compared to a laccase ‘film’ on an unmodified surface. Protein film voltammetry was used to investigate thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of the electrochemical behaviour of laccase. The effect of inhibitors on the magnitude of reduction current and the position of the wave (related to the overpotential for the reaction) was also studied. Fluoride, chloride and azide showed different modes of inhibition and inhibition constants ranged from micromolar for azide to millimolar for chloride. In cyclic voltammetry experiments it was only in the presence of high concentrations of the inhibitors fluoride, chloride and azide that a non-turnover signal, corresponding to a one electron transfer process, was revealed. The evidence suggested that the non-turnover signal arose from interfacial electron transfer between the electrode and the type 1 or ‘blue’ copper. Evaluation of the peak areas allowed determination of the catalytic rate constant, kcat, as 300 s–1, and the electroactive surface coverage as four pmol cm–2. The rate of interfacial electron transfer was rapid enough to not limit catalysis at high overpotentials. A spectroelectrochemical cell was designed to investigate the behaviour of the type 1 copper in the presence of inhibitors and at different pH values. The inhibitors fluoride, chloride and azide had little effect on the reduction potential of the type 1 copper, but at higher pH values the reduction potential of the type 1 copper was decreased.

Hydrogenases catalyse the interconversion of H₂ and H⁺. Protein Film Electrochemistry (PFE), a technique in which a redox enzyme is adsorbed directly onto an electrode, enables a detailed description of the catalytic function of these metalloenzymes to be obtained. Unlike small-molecule electrocatalysts, the hydrogenase active site is surrounded by a protein structure ensuring that it is relatively unperturbed by the electrode surface. In this thesis, PFE is used alongside mathematical modelling to explain differences between [NiFe]- and [FeFe]-hydrogenases, highlighting some important considerations for efficient, reversible electrocatalysis. This thesis probes the unusual reaction between [NiFe]-hydrogenases and cyanide. Through a detailed study utilising PFE, Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) and Attenuated Total Reflection Infrared spectroelectrochemistry (ATR-IR), it is demonstrated that cyanide promotes the formation of the inactive Ni-B state. Preferred formation of the Ni-B state over more slowly reactivating Unready states is considered an important characteristic of the O₂-tolerant class of [NiFe]-hydrogenases. The nature of the Ni-L state, commonly thought to be an artefact formed when a [NiFe]-hydrogenase is exposed to visible light, is probed via EPR and ATR-IR. In this thesis, the Ni-L state is shown to occur in samples of Hydrogenase-1 from Escherichia coli that have not been exposed to visible light, calling into question the true nature of this state. Finally, this thesis details the first study in which PFE is used to investigate the spontaneous incorporation of a synthetic active site mimic complex into apo-hydrogenase. Incorporation into apo-hydrogenase from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Clostridium pasteurianum is discussed, in both cases resulting in fully functional [FeFe]-hydrogenase, electrochemically indistinguishable from the native enzyme.

Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) have emerged as a promising renewable emission-free technology to solve the worldwide increasing demand for clean and efficient energy conversion. Despite large efforts in academia and automotive industry, the commercialization of PEFC vehicles still remains a great challenge. Critical issues are high material costs, insufficient catalytic activity as well as longterm durability. Especially due to the sluggish kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), high Pt loadings on the cathode are still necessary which leads to elevated costs. Alloys of Pt with other less precious metals (Co, Ni, Fe, Cu, etc.) show improved ORR activities compared to pure Pt catalysts. However, state-of-the-art carbon-supported catalysts suffer from severe Pt and carbon corrosion during the standard operation of PEFCs, affecting their reliability and long-term efficiency. Multimetallic aerogels constitute excellent candidates to overcome these issues. Due to their large open pores and high inner surface areas combined with electrical conductivity, they are ideal for applications in electrocatalysis. In addition, they can be employed without any catalyst support. Therefore, the fabrication of bimetallic Pt-M (M=Ni, Cu, Co, Fe) aerogels for applications in fuel cell catalysis was the focus of this thesis. Based on a previously published synthesis for Pt–Pd aerogels, a facile one-step procedure at ambient conditions in aqueous solution was developed. Bimetallic aerogels with nanochain diameters of as small as 4 nm and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface areas of up to 60 m2/g could be obtained. Extensive structure analysis of Pt–Ni and Pt–Cu aerogels by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), scanning transmission electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (STEM-EDX) and electrochemical techniques showed that both metals were predominantly present in their metallic state and formed homogeneous alloys. However, metal (hydr)oxide byproducts were observed in aerogels with higher contents of non-precious metal (>25 %). Moreover, electronic and geometric structures were similar to those of carbon-supported Pt alloy catalysts. As a result, ORR activites were comparable, too. A threefold improvement in surface-specific activity over Pt/C catalysts was achieved. The mass-specific activites met or exceeded the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) target for automotive PEFC applications. Furthermore, a direct correlation between non-precious metal content in the alloy and ORR activity was discovered. Aerogels with nonprecious metal contents >25% turned out to be susceptible to dealloying in acid leaching experiments, but there was no indication for the formation of extended surface structures like Pt-skeletons. A Pt3Ni aerogel was successfully employed as the cathode catalyst layer in a differential fuel cell (1 cm2), which is a crucial step towards technical application. This was the first time an unsupported metallic aerogel was implemented in a PEFC. Accelerated stress tests that are usually applied to investigate the support stability of fuel cell catalysts revealed the excellent stability of Pt3Ni alloyed aerogels. In summary, the Pt alloy aerogels prepared in the context of this work have proven to be highly active oxygen reduction catalysts with remarkable stability.

No presente trabalho propõe-se o uso de substratos de Au poli e monocristalinos modificados superficialmente com Pt para o estudo da reação de oxidação de etanol. Serão apresentados os resultados obtidos no estudo da influência da concentração superficial de Pt depositada na distribuição dos produtos da eletrooxidação de etanol. Os resultados mostram que no caso do sistema Pt/Au-poli, a superfície de Au que possui o menor teor superficial de Pt depositada tem uma habilidade maior para quebrar a ligação C-C. Porém quanto menor a quantidade de Pt depositada na superfície de Au, maior o efeito de desativação. Estes comportamentos são explicados pelas estruturas superficiais formadas pelos depósitos. Adicionalmente, são apresentados os resultados obtidos no estudo sistemático da influência de defeitos superficiais nos substratos de Au na atividade catalítica de camadas de Pt. Os resultados sugerem que, mesmo que os substratos de Au não estejam em contato com a solução eletrolítica devido ao grau de cobertura utilizado, a presença de defeitos nos substratos de Au induzem variações na distribuição de produtos resultantes da eletrooxidação de etanol. Mais especificamente, quanto maior é a densidade de defeitos nos substratos de Au a via de produção de ácido acético é favorecida, com a consequênte inibição na produção de CO2. / In this work we propose the use of poly and single crystalline Au surfaces modified with Pt as a model system of core-shell nanoparticles to study the ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR). Results regarding the study of the influence of Pt coverage on the product yields of EOR are presented. The results show that the in the case of the Pt/Au-poly system, the Au surface modified with lower amounts of Pt has a higher ability to break the C-C bond present in the ethanol molecule. On the other hand, deposits having small amounts of Pt suffer a faster deactivation due to CO poisoning. This behavior is explained by the structure adopted by the catalytic layer. Additionally, results regarding the study of the influence of defects on the Au surfaces on the catalytic behavior of Pt layer will be shown. The results suggest that, even though Au active site are not in contact with electrolityc solution, the defects lying under the Pt layer influence the catalytic response of the layer. Specifically, as the step density in the Au substrate increases, the acetic acid path is privileged over the CO2 production path.

The technical and scientific challenges to provide reliable sources energy for US and global economy are enormous tasks, and especially so when combined with strategic and recent economic concerns of the last five years. It is clear that as part of the mix of energy sources necessary to deal with these challenges, fuel cells technology will play critical or even a central role. The US Department of Energy, as well as a number of the national laboratories and academic institutions have been aware of the importance such technology for some time. Recently, car manufacturers, transportation experts, and even utilities are paying attention to this vital source of energy for the future. In this thesis, a review of the main fuel cell technologies is presented with the focus on the modeling, and control of one particular and promising fuel cell technology, aluminum air fuel cells. The basic principles of this fuel cell technology are presented. A major part of the study consists of a description of the electrochemistry of the process, modeling, and simulations of aluminum air FC using Matlab Simulink™. The controller design of the proposed model is also presented. In sequel, a power management unit is designed and analyzed as an alternative source of power. Thus, the system commutes between the fuel cell output and the alternative power source in order to fulfill a changing power load demand. Finally, a cost analysis and assessment of this technology for portable devices, conclusions and future recommendations are presented. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2013.

Nesta tese foram perseguidos novos avanços no campo das tetrapiridilporfirazinas supramoleculares polimetaladas, visando explorar a maior capacidade de conjugação eletrônica esperada para essa classe de compostos, e seus reflexos nas propriedades eletrônicas e eletroquímicas. Foram apresentadas novas rotas sintéticas para obtenção de tetra(3,4-piridil)porfirazinas centrometaladas coordenadas a complexos polipiridínicos de rutênio, MTRPyPz (M = Cu, Co). As propriedades espectroscópicas e eletroquímicas foram investigadas com o auxílio de técnicas de espectroscopia UV-Vis, Raman ressonante, voltametria cíclica, espectroeletroquímica e espectrometria de massas. Foram desenvolvidas aplicações em dispositivos amperométricos para determinação eletrocatalítica de substratos importantes nas indústrias, como nitrito, sulfito e ácido ascórbico. Os estudos também abrangeram a formação de compósitos das porfirazinas tetrarrutenadas com fullereno. Os nanomateriais híbridos apresentaram uma alta eficiência nos processos eletrocatalíticos com menor sobrepotencial no eletrodo, abrindo perspectivas interessantes de utilização em dispositivos moleculares / Research in supramolecular polymetallic tetrapyridylporphyrazines has been pursued in this Thesis, aiming the exploitation of the favorable electronic delocalization associated with conjugated aromatic rings, and its influence on the electronic and electrochemical properties. New synthetic routes have been developed for the preparation of tetra(3,4-pyridyl)porphyrazines containing Cu(II) and Co(II) ions in the center, and four chlorobis(2,2´bipyridine)ruthenium(II) complexes attached to the peripheral pyridyl groups. Their spectroscopic and electrochemical behaviors were investigated by means of UV-Vis and resonance Raman spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, spectroelectrochemistry and mass spectrometry. Applications in amperometric devices for determination of nitrite, sulfite and ascorbic acid were successfully developed. The thesis also focused on nanocomposites generated from the polymetallic porphyrazines and fullerene (C60). Such hybrid nanomaterials exhibited enhanced electrocatalytic activity associates with a significant decrease of overpotential, opening exciting perspectives of use in molecular devices

Em tempos nos quais a sociedade se volta a reflexões sobre questões climáticas e energéticas, células a combustível surgem como uma alternativa promissora no âmbito das políticas que visam o desenvolvimento sustentável. Nesse sentido, há ainda desafios a serem superados nas esferas fundamental e aplicada. Entender o papel das espécies presentes no eletrólito de suporte é fundamental em tal descrição. Especificamente no caso de ânions dissolvidos no eletrólito, o papel mais comumente atribuído é o de inibir o processo eletrocatalítico de interesse, por meio do bloqueio de sítios superficiais. No entanto, atribui-se recentemente ao ânion BF4- um efeito diverso; o aumento dos valores de corrente de eletro-oxidação em baixos potenciais. Apresenta-se na presente dissertação, um estudo sistemático deste processo, empregando a técnica da nanobalança eletroquímica a cristal de quartzo (NECQ), em conjunto com técnicas eletroquímicas tradicionais. Tal estudo revelou a ocorrência de diferenças notáveis nos perfis voltamassométricos do sistema eletroquímico quando da adição de pequenas quantidades do reagente HBF4. Tais diferenças têm caráter bastante especial, uma vez que nos perfis voltamétricos não são observadas diferenças marcantes nos valores de corrente entre o sistema eletroquímico com a adição de pequenas quantidades do reagente HBF4 e o sistema eletroquímico sem a adição desse reagente. À partir dos métodos utilizados e das evidências experimentais observadas, é possível inferir que o comportamento peculiar até então atribuído ao HBF4 na verdade resulta de uma contaminação com o semimetal arsênio, apesar de o rótulo do fabricante não informar sobre a possibilidade da ocorrência de traços do semimetal. / In times where the society turns its reflections on climate and energy questions, fuel cells appear as a promising alternative for the policies aimed at sustainable development. In this sense, there are still challenges to overcome in fundamental and applied levels. Understand the role of species in the supporting electrolyte is crucial in such a description. Specifically in the case of anions dissolved in the electrolyte, the most commonly assigned role is to inhibit the electrocatalytic process of interest, through blockade of surface sites. However, to the anion BF4- is recently attributed a diverse effect, the increase of the current values of electro-oxidation at low potentials. It is presented in this dissertation, a systematic study of this process, using the technique of the electrochemical quartz crystal nanobalança (EQCN), combined with traditional electrochemical techniques. This study revealed the occurrence of remarkable differences in the voltamassometric profiles of the electrochemical system when adding small amounts of reagent HBF4. Such differences are special features, since in the voltammetric profiles marked differences are not observed in current values between the electrochemical system with or without the addition of small amounts of reagent HBF4. On the basis of methods utilized and the experimental evidence observed, it is possible to infer that the peculiar behavior previously attributed to HBF4 actually results from a semimetal contamination with arsenic, although the manufacturer\'s label gives no information about the occurrence of traces of the semimetal.