Electrolyte interactions with ligand functionalized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have broad implication to a wide range of applications in nanoparticle research field. Among a wide range of electrolytes, halides, nitrates, borohydrides, and sulfides are used to study the AuNP interfacial interactions. Although there are many studies on AuNP interactions with anionic species (halides, nitrates, borohydrides, and sulphides), there is limited information on AuNP interactions with metallic cations. Therefore, studying the nanoparticle interfacial interactions with both anionic and metallic cation species is highly important. The research reported here is focused on deepening the understanding of electrolyte interactions with ligand functionalized AuNPs in aqueous solutions. The stability of citrate-residues on AuNPs against ligand displacement has been controversial. In the first study, we demonstrated the direct experimental evidence for the simultaneous adsorption of both citrate-residues and solution impurities onto citrate-reduced AuNPs by using AuNPs synthesized with deuterated citrate in combination with the surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopic (SERS) analysis. The citrate-residues can be readily displaced from AuNPs by a wide range of specific and non-specific ligands including organosulfur and electrolytes. In the second study, we investigated the charge state and the mechanism of silver ion binding onto organothiol functionalized AuNPs. Mechanistic study reveals that silver binding onto AuNPs proceeds predominantly through reactive pathways with proton generations providing the first direct experimental evidence that Ag+ can disrupt the Au-S binding and enhance the mobility of the organothiols on AuNPs. Ligand displacement from AuNPs is important in a wide range of applications. Complete and non-destructive removal of ligands from AuNPs is important and challenging due to the strong Au-S binding and the steric hindrance imposed by ligand overlayer on AuNPs. In the final study, we investigated hydrogen sulphide (HS-), an anionic thiol as an effective ligand to induce complete and non-destructive removal of ligands from aggregated AuNPs. The new insights and methodologies presented in this dissertation are important for studying the electrolyte interfacial interactions with ligand functionalized AuNPs which have a broad impact on nanoparticle surface chemistry.

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This paper presents a semi-theoretical computer model that estimates individual and mean ionic activity coefficients in the NaCl-NaOH-HCl-H₂O system at 25°C. This extra thermodynamic model incorporates long-range electrostatic ion-ion interaction (Debye- Hückel effects), short-range ion-ion interactions (ion association), and short-range ion-solvent interactions (hydration). The activity of water in NaCl, NaOH, and HCl solutions is fit with maximum deviations from experimental values of 0.78%, 0.79%, and 2.09%, respectively. Ion size parameters, å, were modified slightly from literature values. Hydration numbers for individual species were chosen on the basis of best fit. Ion pair dissociation constants of 15.0 were chosen for reactions involving NaCl(aq), NaOH(aq), and HCl(aq) ion pairs. The model predicts individual ionic activity coefficients for ions and ion pairs, and predicts mean molal ionic activity coefficients for NaCl, NaOH, and HCl for solutions up to 6.0 m with maximum deviations from experimental values of 0.73%, 1.77%, and 3.86%,respectively. The estimated degree of dissociation varies widely if the ion pair dissociation constants are varied between 5 and 1000. Calculated values for trace activity coefficients, saturation solubility, and vapor pressure compare favorably to experimental data. / Master of Science

Les supercondensateurs à base de carbones activés sont caractérisés par une puissance et une cyclabilité supérieures à celles des batteries. Toutefois, en raison de leur faible densité d’énergie, ils sont principalement utilisés comme source de stockage secondaire. Les objectifs de cette thèse étaient d’augmenter l’énergie des supercondensateurs fonctionnant en milieu organique (TEABF4/AN) et de comprendre la répartition des ions dans les pores des carbones activés avant et après la charge des supercondensateurs. Deux approches ont été suivies pour répondre au premier objectif. D’abord nous avons cherché à augmenter la capacité volumique des carbones à 90 F/cm3. Parmi les carbones étudiés, un carbone a attiré notre attention en raison de sa densité d’électrode et de sa capacité élevées. Toutefois, un traitement thermique s’est avéré nécessaire pour réduire la fonctionnalité de surface altérant principalement les performances en vieillissement. Le carbone ainsi traité présente une capacité volumique de 88 F/cm3. Aussi, en s’appuyant sur le principe d’égalité des charges, nous avons mis en place plusieurs systèmes asymétriques carbone/carbone avec des masses et/ou des carbones différents aux deux électrodes. Les configurations optimales permettent de déplacer la fenêtre de stabilité vers des potentiels plus faibles. Les bonnes performances en vieillissement des systèmes asymétriques en masse réalisés au laboratoire nous ont encouragés à réaliser des essais préliminaires sur des composants industriels. Il a ainsi été montré que la dissymétrie de masse permet de ralentir le vieillissement à 2,7 V par rapport à un système symétrique standard. Les analyses RMN de la poudre d’électrodes imprégnées d’électrolyte montrent que les ions et le solvant occupent la porosité en l’absence de polarisation. L’étude des électrodes chargées a montré que les ions se réorganisent dans la porosité. A l’électrode négative, le solvant est exclu de la porosité et les ions TEA+ pénètrent sans leur sphère de solvatation. A l’électrode positive, il reste du solvant, ce qui suggère que les ions BF4 - sont partiellement solvatés dans la microporosité. En augmentant la tension de charge, la quantité d’ions TEA+ and BF4 - augmente respectivement dans les électrodes négative et positive; toutefois des contre-ions restent présents même à tension élevée. / Supercapacitors based on activated carbons are characterized by higher power and cycle life than batteries. Due to their low energy density, they are mainly used as secondary storage device. The objectives of this thesis were to improve the energy density of supercapacitors operating in organic electrolyte (TEABF4/AN) and to elucidate the distribution of ions in the pores of activated carbons, before and after the charge of supercapacitors. Two approaches were followed to reach the first objective. First, it has been attempted to increase the volumetric capacitance up to 90 F/cm3. One carbon giving a high electrode density and capacitance, but having a high amount of oxygenated functionalities, has been identified. It was thermally treated under reducing atmosphere to depress the functionalities which negatively impact the ageing of supercapacitors. The post-treated carbon displayed a volumetric capacitance of 88 F/cm3. Asymmetric carbon/carbon supercapacitors, with different mass or/and different carbons for the electrodes, were constructed for shifting the stability window towards lower potential values. Laboratory cells built in these conditions exhibited promising performance during cycling, which encouraged us to confirm the results at industrial scale. In particular, the asymmetric configuration using electrodes of different mass showed better ageing behavior at 2.7 V that the symmetric system. RMN analysis of the powder from electrodes soaked with the organic electrolyte showed that the solvent and ionic species are already confined into the micropores without applying any polarisation. During charging, the solvent molecules are expelled from the porosity of the negative electrode while TEA+ ions penetrate into the pores without their solvation shell. On the contrary, the presence of some solvent together with BF4 - in the positive electrode indicates that the BF4 - ions are partially solvated. Upon increasing the voltage, the amount of TEA+ and BF4 - increases in the negative and positive electrode, respectively; however, counter ions are still present even at high voltage.

Lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology is currently the most promising candidate for power sources in applications such as portable electronics and electric vehicles. In today's state-of-the-art LIBs, non-aqueous electrolytes are the most widely used family of electrolytes. In the present thesis work, efforts are devoted to improve the conventional LiPF6-based electrolytes with additives, as well as to develop alternative lithium 2-trifluoromethyl-4,5-dicyanoimidazole (LiTDI)-based electrolytes for silicon anodes. In addition, electrode/electrolyte interfacial chemistries in such battery systems are extensively investigated. Two additives, LiTDI and fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), are evaluated individually for conventional LiPF6-based electrolytes combined with various electrode materials. Introduction of each of the two additives leads to improved battery performance, although the underlying mechanisms are rather different. The LiTDI additive is able to scavenge moisture in the electrolyte, and as a result, enhance the chemical stability of LiPF6-based electrolytes even at extreme conditions such as storage under high moisture content and at elevated temperatures. In addition, it is demonstrated that LiTDI significantly influences the electrode/electrolyte interfaces in NMC/Li and NMC/graphite cells. On the other hand, FEC promotes electrode/electrolyte interfacial stability via formation of a stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer, which consists of FEC-derivatives such as LiF and polycarbonates in particular. Moreover, LiTDI-based electrolytes are developed as an alternative to LiPF6 electrolytes for silicon anodes. Due to severe salt and solvent degradation, silicon anodes with the LiTDI-baseline electrolyte showed rather poor electrochemical performance. However, with the SEI-forming additives of FEC and VC, the cycling performance of such battery system is greatly improved, owing to a stabilized electrode/electrolyte interface. This thesis work highlights that cooperation of appropriate electrolyte additives is an effective yet simple approach to enhance battery performance, and in addition, that the interfacial chemistries are of particular importance to deeply understand battery behavior.

L’électrochromisme est le changement réversible de couleur d’un matériau lors de son oxydation ou de sa réduction électrochimique. Cette thèse porte sur l’étude d’électrolytes à base de liquide ionique (BMIPF6 et BMITFSI), de sel de lithium (LiTFSI) et de polymère (PMMA) et sur la préparation de systèmes électrochromes à base de ces électrolytes et du PEDOT, du Bleu de Prusse ou d'InHCF comme matériaux électrochromes. La conduction ionique mesurée par EIS, les analyses thermo gravimétriques, les spectroscopies IR et Raman et la mesure des coefficients de diffusion informent sur les interactions entre les espèces dans l'électrolyte. Les matériaux électrochromes (PEDOT, BP, InHCF) sont ensuite étudiés dans un électrolyte modèle LiTFSI 0.03 / BMITFSI 0.97. Enfin, des systèmes électrochromiques flexibles sont réalisés et leur propriétés de coloration et de cyclage étudiées. / Electrochromism is the reversible colour change of a material upon electrochemical oxidation or reduction. This thesis will focus on the study of ionic liquid (BMIPF6 and BMITFSI), lithium salt (LiTFSI) and polymer (PMMA) based electrolytes and on the preparation of electrochromic devices with PEDOT, Prussian Blue or one of its analogues InHCF, as electrochromic materials. The measurement of ionic conductivity by EIS, thermo-gravimetric analysis, IR and Raman spectroscopy and measurement of diffusion coefficients of these electrolytes highlight the interactions between the different species of the electrolyte. Electrochromic materials (PEDOT, BP, InHCF) are then studied in a model electrolyte (LiTFSI 0.03 / 0.97 BMITFSI), their electrochromic properties are detailed. Finally, flexible electrochromic devices are made and their properties of colouration and cycling are presented.

Ce mémoire est consacré à l'étude de deux matériaux d'électrodes négatives pour batteries Li-ion : NiSb2 et TiSnSb. Ces matériaux de conversion possèdent des capacités presque deux fois supérieures à celle du graphite, actuellement utilisé, mais ils souffrent i) d'une faible cyclabilité causée par les variations volumiques caractéristiques de ce type d'électrode et ii) d'une grande perte de lithium irréversible lors de la 1ère insertion due à la réactivité de surface avec l'électrolyte. Les mécanismes réactionnels avec le lithium ont été étudiés en profondeur par diffraction des rayons X, spectrométrie Mössbauer (119Sn et 121Sb). Les études in situ et ex situ en spectroscopie d'absorption X ont permis d'identifier la formation de nanoparticules de métal de transition très réactives et dont l'instabilité est probablement à l'origine des phénomènes de relaxation observés dans l'électrode à l'état déchargé. L'amélioration des performances a été réalisée grâce à l'élaboration d'électrodes composites contenant des fibres de carbone et de la CMC. Cette formulation d'électrodes permet d'atteindre une cyclabilité de 250 cycles pour TiSnSb à régimes variables entre 4C et C. L'ajout de FEC dans l'électrolyte apparait également comme une solution pour augmenter la durée de vie des électrodes.L'interface électrode/électrolyte a été analysée par Résonance Magnétique Nucléaire, Spectroscopie Photoéletronique à rayonnement X et spectroscopie infrarouge. Li2CO3 est l'espèce majoritairement formée lors de la réduction de l'électrolyte en 1ère décharge (lié à la création de nouvelles surfaces lors de la réaction et à expansion volumique). Lors de la charge, une restructuration (ou fragmentation) de la SEI (couche de passivation) est probable à cause de la contraction de l'électrode. L'épaisseur de la couche de SEI à l'interface continue de croitre après 15 cycles. / The thesis is devoted to the study of two negative electrode materials for Li-ion batteries: NiSb2 and TiSnSb. These conversion type materials have high capacities greater than graphite electrode used in current devices. However, these compounds suffer from i) a low cyclability caused by volumetric variations which are characteristic of this type of electrode, and ii) a loss of lithium (irreversible process) during the 1st insertion due to the reduction of the liquid electrolyte on the surface of active material.The mechanisms have been studied by X-Ray Diffraction, Mössbauer Spectroscopy (119Sn and 121Sb). The in situ and ex situ X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy analysis have allowed identifying both the formation of highly reactive Ti and Ni nanoparticles and a relaxation effect in the discharged electrode at 0V. The improvement of performances is based on the composite electrodes formulation using carbon fibers as conductive additive and Carboxymethyl cellulose CMC as binder. A cyclability of 250 cycles at C and 4C rate is reached for TiSnSb electrodes. The addition of Fluoro Ethylene Carbonate (FEC) in the electrolyte is another way to increase the life span of electrodes.The electrode/electrolyte interface has been analyzed by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and Infrared Spectroscopy. During the discharge, among the species produced from the reduction of electrolyte Li2CO3 is in the majority because new surfaces are created (volumetric expansion). On charge, a fragmentation of the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) deposited on the surface of the active material grains is observed. Moreover, first XPS investigations have shown that the SEI thickness continuously increases on cycling.

The aims of this thesis were to; firstly, address the numerous concerns for athletes associated with exercise-induced dehydration and electrolyte loss; secondly, to examine the development of methods of assessing soccer players’ performance; and thirdly, to investigate the inter-relationship between soccer-specific tests. Finally, through a series of studies, the effect of electrolyte loss on subsequent soccer-specific performance was examined. / Chapters 1 and 2 comprise of detailed literature reviews, which introduce the pertinent issues related to hydration, electrolyte loss and assessment of soccer performance and outline areas of necessary future research. Chapter 3 measured the effect of short-term fatigue, through a repeated sprint ability (RSA) test, on subsequent skill performance, via the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT), in thirty international level female soccer players. No significant differences were observed in any of the movement, penalty or total time taken to complete the LSPT between the pre- and post-RSA scores. / Chapter 4 investigated the hydration status and electrolyte loss of 14 professional soccer players (mean ± SD; Age: 24.1 ± 3.5 years; Height: 1.78 ± 0.07 m, Body mass (BM): 72.6 ± 12.1 kg) during normal “in-season” training and subsequently examined the effect of beverage sodium (Na⁺) on RSA performance. It was found that RSA performance was significantly improved in professional soccer players by the inclusion of 21.32 mmol·L⁻¹ Na⁺ in a beverage, when compared to a control beverage. / Chapter 5 examined the effects of 60 min of soccer-specific training on LSPT performance, hydration status and core temperature (Tc) when ingesting either a carbohydrate-electrolyte (CHO-E) or control (CON) drink. Seven healthy male soccer players (age: 23 ± 2.9 y, height: 1.7 ± 0.04 m, mass: 62.7 ± 6.7 kg) each completed a carbohydrate-electrolyte (CHO-E) and a control (CON) trial. There was an improvement in movement time (p = .034) and overall LSPT performance (p = .031) post-exercise in CHO-E when compared with CON. No differences were observed in Tc or absolute and relative body mass loss between trials (p> .05). / The final investigation of this thesis is detailed in chapter 6, where the purpose of the investigation was to examine the effect of beverages with different Na⁺ concentrations in soccer players on repeated sprint and soccer skill performance during and after soccer-simulated activity in a hot and humid environment. 12 healthy, male, semi-professional soccer players volunteered for this study (mean ± SD: age 24.5 ± 3.3 y, height 1.8 ± 0.06 m, BM 78.1 ± 9.4 kg). The results highlighted that the RSA performance was improved in both the High-Na⁺ and Na⁺ trials when compared to the CON trial at each time point (p < 0.05). A significant improvement in LSPT performance was observed in the Hi-Na⁺ trial compared with CON trial at all measurement time points (p < 0.05). / The findings from this thesis highlight that the addition of Na⁺ to a beverage can enhance sprint and skill performance in soccer players when the beverage is consumed during sport-specific training in a hot and humid environment. / 本論文的研究目的包括; 首先，探討運動員在運動時脫水和流失電解質的眾多顧慮;其次，考究足球員表現評估方法之發展; 第三，通過一系列的研究，調查電解質流失對隨後足球專項表現的影響。最後，就不同足球專項評估方法的相互關連性進行研究。 / 第1章和第2章包含詳盡的文獻綜述，當中介紹了水合作用、電解質流失和足球員表現評估方法的議題，並帶出未來需要研究的方向。第3章探討透過反复衝刺能力（ RSA ）測試引致的短期疲勞對足球表現的影響。30名國際級女子足球運動員在短期疲勞前後進行LSPT技術測試。結果顯示，RSA前後的LSPT成績 (不論動作、懲罰或總完成時間)均無顯著差異。 / 第4章調查了14名專業足球運動員（平均值±標準差; 年齡： 24.1 ±3.5歲，身高：1.78 ±0.07米，體重（ BM ）：72.6 ±12.1千克）於”比賽季”常規訓練的水合狀態和電解質流失，並隨後研究飲料鈉（Na +）對RSA表現的影響。研究發現， 與對照組相比，運動員飲用包含21.32 mmol.L -1 Na +的飲料後，RSA表現有顯著提升。 / 第5章研究攝入碳水化合物-電解質飲料（ CHO - E）或對照飲料（CON ）後，60分鐘足球專項訓練對LSPT表現，水合狀態和核心溫度（Tc）的影響。七名健康男性足球員（年齡：23 ±2.9歲，高度： 1.7 ±0.04米，體重： 62.7 ±6.7千克）各完成一個碳水化合物-電解質（ CHO - E）和一個對照組（CON ）試驗。與CON組相比，，CHO - E組在運動時間（P = .034 ）和整體LSPT表現（P = .031 ）均有顯著提升。兩組間的Tc或絕對和相對體重流失則無顯著差異（P> 0.05 ）。 / 在最後第6章，本論文研究在高溫高濕環境下的足球模擬活動期間和隨後，不同Na +濃度飲料對足球員的反複衝刺和足球專項技巧表現的影響。 12名健康的男性半職業足球運動員自願參加本研究（平均值±標準差： 24.5 ±3.3歲，身高1.8 ±0.06米，體重78.1 ±9.4千克） 。結果顯示，與CON組相比，高Na +和Na +組在所有測量時間點中的RSA表現都有顯著提高（ P <0.05）。至於LSPT表現，高Na +組則比CON組在所有測量時間點均有顯著改善（ P < 0.05）。 / 綜上所述，本論文的研究結果強調，在飲料添加Na +可提高足球運動員在炎熱和潮濕的環境訓練時的短跑和技術表現。 / O'Reilly, John Timothy. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2014. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 116-137). / Abstracts also in Chinese. / Title from PDF title page (viewed on 08, November, 2016). / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only.

Différentes études ont mis en évidence que la présence d'électrolyte modifie les performances de la nanofiltration et que l'augmentation du transfert observée est majoritairement gouvernée par la modification des propriétés du soluté (interactions soluté / électrolyte). Cependant, de nombreux verrous scientifiques et techniques restent encore à lever pour promouvoir l'intégration de ces opérations à l'échelle industrielle. Dans ce contexte, le travail proposé vise à améliorer la compréhension des mécanismes de transfert en s'appuyant d'une part sur la caractérisation multi-échelle des interactions dans les systèmes soluté neutre / électrolyte et plus particulièrement l'hydratation des espèces, et d'autre part sur la recherche de corrélations entre ces propriétés et les grandeurs de transfert. Plus précisément, il s'agit de comprendre comment les ions agissent sur les propriétés d'hydratation des sucres et leur transfert à travers une membrane de nanofiltration. Dans un premier temps, les propriétés volumiques de sucres (xylose, glucose, saccharose), qui caractérisent l'hydratation des solutés à l'échelle macroscopique, déterminées pour différentes compositions ioniques (LiCl, NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaCl2, MgCl2, MgSO4), montrent que la déshydratation des sucres est principalement gouvernée par les interactions sucre / ions, dépendantes des propriétés des ions (valence, taille). Dans un second temps, la mécanique quantique est utilisée pour décrire les propriétés d'hydratation des ions et des sucres, seuls, puis en mélange à l'échelle microscopique. Il est montré que les sucres et les ions se déshydratent et que les sucres sont d'autant plus déshydratés que le nombre d'interactions sucre / ions augmente, qui lui-même augmente avec le nombre de coordinations des ions dans l'eau. Enfin, des corrélations quantitatives sont obtenues entre les propriétés d'hydratation des espèces (nombre d'hydratation, nombre de coordinations, nombre d'interactions...) obtenues aux différentes échelles et les grandeurs caractérisant le transfert. Ainsi, à partir de ces résultats prometteurs, des travaux complémentaires devraient permettre d'améliorer la prédiction des performances de la nanofiltration pour le traitement de solutions contenant des solutés organiques en présence d'électrolyte. / Different studies have shown that the presence of electrolyte modifies the nanofiltration performances and that the increase of the neutral solute transfer is mainly governed by the modification of the solute properties (neutral solute / electrolyte interactions). However, the development of such membrane processes is still limited since it is hardly possible to predict the process performances, In this context, the aim of this work is to study the neutral solute / electrolyte interactions using a fundamental multi scale approach in order to improve the knowledge of the transfer mechanisms taking place through nanofiltration membranes. More precisely, the objective is to understand how the ions act on the hydration properties of the saccharides and their transfer through a nanofiltration membrane. Firstly, the saccharide volumetric properties (xylose, glucose, sucrose), which characterize the solute hydration at the macroscopic scale, are determined in presence of various electrolytes (LiCl, NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaCl2, MgCl2, MgSO4). The results show that the saccharide dehydration is due to the predominance of the saccharide / ions interactions depending on the ions' properties (valence, size). Secondly, quantum mechanics is used to describe the hydration properties of ions and saccharides, alone and then in a mixture at the microscopic scale. It is shown that both saccharide and ions are dehydrated and that the saccharides are more dehydrated for increasing saccharide / ions interactions number, which in turn increases with the ion's coordination number in water. It is also shown that the species hydration properties, obtained at different scales are consistent. Finally, quantitative correlations between the species hydration properties and the saccharide mass transfer parameters are obtained. Thus, from these promising results, further work will be devoted to improve the prediction of the performance of nanofiltration for the treatment of solutions containing organic solutes in the presence of electrolyte.