Switching mode DC/DC converters are critical building blocks in portable devices and hence their power efficiency, accuracy and cost are a major issue. The primary focus of this thesis is to address these critical issues.This thesis focuses on the different methods of feedback control loop which are employed in the switching mode DC/DC converters such as voltage mode control and current mode control. It also discusses about the structure of buck converter and tries to find an efficient solution for stepping-down the DC voltage level in ultra-low power applications. Based on this analysis, a 20 MHz voltage mode DC/DC buck converter with an on-chip compensated error amplifier in 65 nm CMOS process is designed and implemented.The power efficiency has been improved by sizing the power switches to have a low parasitic output and gate capacitances to reduce the capacitive and gate-drive losses. Also the error amplifier biasing current is chosen a small value (12.5 μA) to reduce the power dissipations in the control loop of the system. The maximum 84% power efficiency is achieved at 1.1 V to 500 mV conversion, above 81% efficiency can be achieved at load current from 0.5 mA to 1.26 mA. Due to wide bandwidth error amplifier and proper compensation network the fast transient response with settling time around 45 μs is achieved.

The ability to resolve molecules individually has many potential applications. These include understanding the local environments of single molecules including details of their interactions with surroundings. The ability to individually address and manipulate the spin states is also required for spin based quantum information processing. Although optical detection techniques, such as optically detected electron spin resonance (ESR) seem very powerful in these contexts, multiple molecules in the focal volume of a diffraction limited confocal microscope spot cannot in general be resolved individually. Here we propose to solve this problem using optically detected ESR imaging based on the use of high field gradients. In the present research, subwavelength single molecule imaging is demonstrated by using the optically detected ESR technique and the optically detected electron spin echo envelope modulation (ESEEM) technique. Ultra fast Rabi nutation experiments are also performed to demonstrate the feasibility of fast spin manipulations at a low microwave power. Micrometer sized gradient coils, together with micrometer sized co-planar microstrip transmission lines, are designed and fabricated by optical lithography in order to produce the necessary high magnetic field gradients. These fabricated devices are used to demonstrate this subwavelength imaging technique by imaging single electron spins of the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) defect in diamond. In this demonstration, multiple NV defects, unresolved in a single focal volume of a diffraction limited microscope are successfully resolved by the optically detected ESR techniques. Specifically, two neighboring NV defects separated by about 170nm are resolved. Ultra Fast electron spin nutation with an oscillation period of 1.33ns is also achieved by the high microwave magnetic field induced by the current flowing through the fabricated co-planar microstrip lines. These optically detected ESR and ESEEM techniques combined with the micrometer sized gradient coil may find many applications, including single molecule imaging and quantum information processing.

The continuous trend towards mega-functional, high-performance and ultra-miniaturized system has been driving the need for advances in novel materials with superior properties leading to thin components, high-density interconnect substrates and interconnections. Power supply and management is becoming a critical bottleneck for the advances in such mega-functional systems because power components do not scale down with the rest of the system resulting in bulky and stand-alone power modules. Amongst the power components, thin film capacitors are considered the most challenging to integrate because of several manufacturability concerns. The challenges are related to process compatibility of high permittivity dielectrics with substrates and high surface area electrodes, yield, leakage and losses. This thesis focuses on novel thin film capacitor technologies that address some of these critical challenges. / Thesis advisor has approved the addition of errata to this item. The abstract text in the metadata record has been modified to match the document text.

In this work, low dimensional iron group clusters have been studied by application of high magnetic fields. The magnetization has been probed with an MPMS as function of temperature and field. The combination with pulse field measurements up to 52\,T allowed determination of the magnetic exchange coupling parameters, and to probing the effective spin of the ground state. The main focus was on tunable high-field/high-frequency (tHF) ESR in static fields < 17 T and pulse field ESR up to 36 T. This magnetic resonance method has been used for the characterization of the local magnetic properties: The detailed analysis of the field dependence of dedicated spin states allowed to determine the magnetic anisotropy and g-factors. The results were analyzed in the framework of the appropriate effective spin Hamiltonians in terms of magnetization fits and ESR spectrum simulations.

<p>Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå : Umeå universitet, 1996, härtill 4 uppsatser</p> / digitalisering@umu

This diploma work was performed at the department for radiation physics at the Health University in Linköping. Its aim was to develop a method to retrospectively quantify the absorbed dose in coral. Coral is a material which suites well as a retrospective dosimeter because when exposed to radioactivity its induced free radicals are stable in time. The number of radicals is proportional to the accumulated dose so the dose can be calculated by quantifying the radicals. Therefore, coral can tell us something about the past environment and also be used in dating purposes. A young, modern coral from the Red Sea was studied and also a fossil one which I was given from the Natural History Museum in Stockholm. It was estimated to be originated from the Tertiary period, i.e. 2-65 million years old. To accurately calculate the corals’ accumulated doses I had to gain knowledge in a number of separate areas. The radicals were analyzed using electron spin resonance. This was possible because of the fact that free radicals contain unpaired electrons. Initially, the main goal was to study how to prepare the coral without neither mechanically inducing new radicals nor destroying the radiation induced radicals. When the preparation method was considered optimal the dose response was then crucial, i.e. how the number of radicals corresponded to radiation. To accurately quantify the absorbed doses the spectra needed to be modified and elaborated with signal analyses. By adding artificial irradiations to the samples the initial doses could be calculated. To estimate the age of a coral an assessment of the natural dose rate must be done. This was done by measure the disintegration activity of the samples. It was found that its main contributor was the 238U-series. The fossil’s minimum age was estimated to 3 million years whereas the ESR-noise made it impossible to calculate the dose in the modern coral. The detectable dose limit of the method was approximately 0.5 Gy, i.e. a minimum age of about 500 years. However, the modern coral was determined as an Elkhorn coral (family Acropora) which is a species with a fast growth rate. The coral’s size implicated its age to be about 100 years old. In addition, the method was put to the test by irradiating the young coral with an unknown dose. After modifying the method the absorbed dose was calculated to be 1.3 ± 0.3 Gy. The real dose was 1.2 Gy. Thus, the method exhibited large scales of uncertainties but it did nevertheless work sufficiently enough.

Depuis toujours, l'homme a cherché à dater les grands événements de l'histoire de la Terre. Les premières estimations de l'âge de la planète et de la date de l'apparition de l'homme sont données dans des livres sacrés, dont certains datent de plusieurs millénaires. Cependant, les valeurs données dans ces ouvrages minimisent généralement la durée des temps géologiques ; ainsi, la chronologie établie au milieu du XVIIème siècle par l'évêque Ussher à partir de la Bible situe la création de la Terre 4 004 ans avant la naissance du Christ. Cette datation, que l'on sait être aujourd'hui très en dessous de la réalité, a prévalu en Europe jusqu'au XVIIIème siècle environ et des scientifiques tels que Cuvier s'y tenaient. Par la suite, avec les premiers travaux de stratigraphie et de géologie historique, commencèrent à apparaître les rudiments d'une échelle chronostratigraphique globale, basée en grande partie sur l'étude des assemblages de fossiles marins. A la fin du XIXème siècle, après la découverte des premiers restes d'hominidés fossiles, quatre grandes ères géologiques furent distinguées. Parmi celles-ci, l'ère Quaternaire était caractérisée par une faune identique à la faune actuelle et par la présence de l'homme. L'élaboration d'une échelle chronostratigraphique de l'ère Quaternaire a posé et pose un certain nombre de problèmes. En raison de sa courte durée, il est en effet difficile de baser la stratigraphie sur l'évolution des faunes marines, comme c'est le cas pour les autres périodes géologiques, et les chercheurs ont donc tenté successivement pour contourner ce problème d'employer les assemblages paléontologiques continentaux, l'évolution de l'industrie lithique ou des événements géologiques ou climatiques, comme par exemple les témoignages des glaciations. Ce n'est qu'après la seconde guerre mondiale que les progrès de la physique et de la chimie ont fourni les moyens de poser les bases d'une échelle chronologique "absolue" du Quaternaire, avec en particulier le développement des études paléomagnétiques et l'utilisation des techniques de datation basées sur la radioactivité naturelle. Aujourd'hui, le préhistorien, le géographe et le géologue du Quaternaire dispose ainsi d'un certain nombre de méthodes radiométriques ou chimiques, qui sont chacune caractérisées par un domaine d'utilisation précis et qui ne sont applicables qu'à un certain nombre de supports spécifiques.

The term Ecosystem Services describes all the direct and indirect contributions ecosystems have on human welfare. Fresh water, clean air, genetic diversity, recreation and inspiration are some examples of ecosystem services we get from nature but often take for granted. The human way of living affects our ecosystem and by transforming natural surfaces to unnatural surfaces important ecosystem and their services might be lost or hard to reconstruct. There is a growing support from the community that the value of ecosystem services should be integrated into decision-making in our society.   Gällivare municipality plans for a big infrastructure investment. By knowing which ecosystem services that are important for people living in the city of Gällivare, the municipality can take the ecosystem services into consideration and optimize and reach multifunctionality in natural surfaces providing important ecosystem services. As a part of Gällivare municipality’s work to integrate ecosystem services in their infrastructure investment, this thesis studies ecosystem services during different seasons in the city of Gällivare. This master thesis examines ecosystem services in four different places in Gällivare. An assessment of important ecosystem services in every place was done based on information during a workshop with Gällivare municipality. Eleven or twelve ecosystem services in every place were considered especially important for the municipality. The prioritized ecosystem services were the cultural and the regulating services. How people in the locality experience the cultural services, recreation, mental &amp; physical health; aesthetic appreciation, inspiration &amp; education; tourism and spiritual experience &amp; "sense of place" and what they think of the services' potential development in the future were further studied with a questionnaire and interviews. The regulating ecosystem service local climate regulation was further studied by calculations of the ability of vegetation and water to affect the local temperature. The ability of ecosystems to clean storm water and regulate water flows was studied by inspecting flood maps for the city of Gällivare and standard levels of pollutions in storm water from different land uses.  Early in the study it was found that, during the winter season, existing ecosystem services are mostly cultural services since the ecosystem is in rest during winter and thereby can't deliver the same diversity of services as in summer. During summer season, results showed that vegetation could affect local climate by stabilizing the temperature. The vegetation also delays water flows, which is important during spring when there is a large amount of melt water and during heavy raining. The amount of pollutions in surface water is also reduced by vegetation.

Cristais naturais de pumpelita Ca8Al8(Mg,Fe,Mn,Al)[(SiO4)4/(Si2O7)4/(OH)8(H2O, OH)4]), provenientes da mina de Brejui, município de Currais Novos, Rio Grande do Norte, foram investigados através das técnicas de termoluminescência (TL), absorção óptica (AO) e ressonância paramagnética eletrônica (EPR) com o intuito de entender os efeitos da radiação ionizante e de recozimento em altas temperaturas sobre estes cristais. As curvas TL obtidas apresentaram cinco picos, 90, 145, 220, 315 e 390 oC, após terem sido irradiadas para uma taxa de quecimento de 4 °C/s. A decomposição espectral da luz TL foi obtida para todos os picos e presentou uma emissão centrada em 575 nm e largura à meia altura de 75 nm e outras duas emissões menores em 470 nm e 660 nm indicando que o processo TL pode possuir mais de um centro de recombinação, independentemente das temperaturas dos picos. Em um segundo momento, foi investigado o efeito de diferentes tratamentos térmicos pré-irradiação (500, 600, 700, 800 e 900 °C) nas propriedades TL dos cristais. Somente a intensidade das emissões mostrou ser dependente da temperatura destes tratamentos térmicos, a posição dos quatro picos não foi alterada. Os picos em 220 e 390 °C apresentaram grande sensibilidade ao tratamento térmico. Uma análise termogravimétrica mostrou que entre 650 e 800 °C houve grande perda de massa envolvida num processo endotérmico, sugerindo uma provável mudança de estado. O espectro de ressonância paramagnética eletrônica mostra um sinal muito intenso que se estende de 1000 a 6000 Gauss e seis linhas típicas hiperfinas de Mn2+ entre 3000 e 4000 Gauss. O sinal EPR gigante é devido à interação dipolo (magnético) dipolo magnético) de Fe3+. Os espectros de AO de amostras recozidas em 600 °C, 700 °C e 900 °C mostram num resultado muito interessante, a banda em torno de 1060 nm, que, é devida a Fe2+ muda pouco com o tratamento térmico até 800 °C, mas, entre 800 °C e 900 °C a banda decresce. Nessa região de temperatura, ocorre a reação: Fe2+ temperaturae + Fe3+ Fe2+ perde um elétron e se torna Fe3+. Este processo é, também, responsável pelo aumento muito grande da intensidade EPR na região de g = 2,0, em amostras que sofreram recozimentos em temperaturas acima de 850 °C, Nestas temperaturas, a coloração da pumpelita é também afetada. Todos os picos TL sofrem fotoesvaziamento (bleaching), quando a amostra irradiada é exposta a luz UV. / Natural mineral of pumpellyite, one of the members of epidote group has been investigated. With chemical formula (Ca8Al8(Mg,Fe,Mn,Al)[(SiO4)4/(Si2O7)4/(OH)8(H2O, OH)4]), the sample here studied was collected from Brejui Mine, Currais Novos County, state of Rio Grande do Norte. The work was aimed to investigate its thermoluminescence (TL), color centers and electron paramagnetic properties. Annealing at high temperatures, heavy irradiation and UV irradiation techniques have been used. The physical properties of interest are due to the elements composing crystal structure such as Si, Al, Mg, Fe and Mn, however among about twenty elements that can be considered impurities; only Na, K and Cr participate. The TL glow curve obtained from 600 °C for one hour pre-annealed and then - irradiated sample has shown 90, 145, 220, 275 and 390 °C peaks. A heating rate of 4 °C has been used for TL read out. The lowest 90 °C peak is very unstable, however, it is by far the most sensitive one to the irradiation; at 50 Gy -dose its peak height is almost 100 times larger. Among others, the 315 °C peak grows faster. Heat treatments before irradiation increase the sensitivity of TL peaks slowly from 500 to 800 °C, but such increase becomes very large above 800 °C. For example the 390 °C peak sensitivity increases by a factor 100 on going from 500 C to 900 °C annealing. The spectral analysis of the emitted TL light has shown that there are 470, 575 and 600 nm bands indicating that there are at least three recombination centers. The 575 nm is by far the dominating one. The UV light bleaching has shown that all the TL peaks decay fast up to 10 minutes exposure and a residual TL is left after long time exposure. The optical absorption spectrum is characterized by four absorption bands in the visible region, one strong and broad band around 1060 nm and several in near IR region. The 1060 nm band is due to Fe2+ which around 850 900 °C annealing decreases indicating that Fe2+ liberates electrons leaving Fe3+. The EPR spectrum is dominated by Fe3+ spin spin interaction. Mn2+ six hyperfine lines superpose Fe line around g = 2,0. Under 850 900 °C heating, that broad Fe3+ lines becomes stronger and broader due to Fe2+ changing to Fe3+. The EPR intensity of 800 °C annealed sample and then irradiated to 1 kGy - dose increases with microwave power, but start saturation around 30 to 40 mW power.

As propriedades dos derivados nitrosilados de diferentes hemoproteínas em função da temperatura, da concentração de óxido nítrico (NO) e pH, foram investigadas utilizando a técnica de Ressonância Paramagnética Eletrônica (RPE). Nas hemoproteínas, o grupo heme está acomodado em um bolso: de um lado encontra-se a histidina proximal, de outro uma cavidade aberta onde pode ocorrer a ligação de O2 (ou outras moléculas, tais como H2O, NO, CO, etc.). Perto daí, encontra-se o sítio distal, que pode ou não estar ocupado por uma cadeia lateral de aminoácido, o qual pode influenciar a ligação do ligante. As proteínas estudadas, marcadas com NO, foram: mioglobinas de Cavalo de Cacgalote, que possuem o sítio distal ocupado por um resíduo de histidina, a mioglobina do molusco Aplysia brasiliana (Mb Apb) que não possue um resíduo de aminoácido no sítio distal e a eritrocruorina da minhoca Annelidae Glossoscolex paulistus (Ec AGp), cuja vizinhança do heme não está determinada. Os resultados obtidos com as soluções de mioglobinas de Cavalho e de Cachalote, preparadas a partir da proteína liofilizada (Sigma) mostram cerca de 13% de mioglobina está na forma oxi (MbA) e o restante na forma meta (MbB). A ligação de NO à Mba se faz por simples substituição da molécula de O2 por NO, mantendo o ferro em seu estado ferroso. Já para a MbB, a ligação ocorre em duas etapas: na primeira reduzindo o Fe3+ a Fe2+ e, numa segunda, cuja extensão depende da concentração de NO, o óxido nítrico liga-se ao Fe2+ produto da redução do ferro da MbB. Se a razão NO/Mb é igual ou maior que 2/1, o espectro da RPE é uma linha carga (tipo B), como tem sido identificado na literatura. Se a razão NO/b é da ordem de 0,2/1, o espectro de RPE (tipo A) apresenta um desdobramento hiperfino, similar ao da deoxiHb humana na conformação T. Se a razão NO/Mb varia entre 0,2 e 2, o espectro de RPE é uma mistura de dois tipos (AB). Os espectros tipo A e AB apresentam uma clara dependência com a temperatura, ao passo que o espectro tipo B não. Observa-se que também que a afinidade pelo NO da MbB depende do pH; quanto menor o pH, mais difícil fica se completar a reação do Fe3+ com o NO, mesmo se a razão NO/Mb é maior que 2. Os espectros de RPE da MbANO e da MbBNO são diferentes, porque o campo cristalino em torno do ferro apresenta pequenas variações, alterando a distância de N&#949-FE-NO. No caso da MbA isto dá origem a um espectro similar ao encontrado para o ferro pentacoordenado (tipo A); no caso da MbB, o espectro é do tipo encontrado para ferro hexacoordenado (tipo B). O estudo da dependência do espectro de RPE com a temperatura, no caso da EcNO AGp, mostra que existe um equilíbrio térmico entre duas espécies hexacoordenadas: a espécie I, que predomina à baixa temperatura e cujo espectro de RPE exibe desdobramento superhiperfino com 9 linhas; a espécie II, que predomina altas temperaturas e cujo espectro de RPE é uma linha larga. No intervalo de temperaturas estudado, pode ser observado que em temperaturas intermediárias, os espectros são uma mistura das duas espécies. Pode-se através de diferença espectral estudar o comportamento de cada espécie separadamente e o equilíbrio da mistura. Verificou-se que as duas espécies estão separadas por cerca de 2 kcal/mol. Com os resultados obtidos e comparando-os com os obtidos na literatura, é possível sugerir a existência de uma glutamina distal para a Ec AGP. Para a MbNO ApB, encontra-se um espectro de RE que apresenta desdobramento superhiperfino com 9 linhas. Os espectros a baixa e alta temperatura são similares apenas à alta temperatura e a resolução é menor. Observa-se ainda, a influenciado sítio distal (his E7 nas mioglobinas de Cavalo e de Cachalote) sobre a ligação Fe-N-O. Nas Mb de Cavalo e de Cachalote, em que o sítio distal é ocupado por uma histidina, o espectro da RPE da MbNO é uma linha larga que não varia significativamente com a temperatura. Na Ec AGp, em que o sítio distal está provavelmente ocupado por uma glutamina, o espectro de RPE apresenta uma dependência com a temperatura: a 309.3K, o espectro é uma linha larga, a 103.0K, o espectro apresenta desdobramento superhiperfino. Na Mb Apb, em que não há resíduo básico ocupando a posição distal, o espectro apresenta desdobramento superhiperfino em todo o intervalo de temperatura estudado (113,7K a 283,3K). / Using the Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) technique, the properties of several nitrosyl hemoproteins were investigated as a function of temperature, pH and nitric oxide (NO) concentration. In hemoproteins, the heme moiety is esconced in a pocket: in one side there is na open cavity where the bonding of different molecules, such as H2O, NO, CO, etc., may occur occupied or not by an aminoacid residue thus influencying in different ways the ligand bonding. The following nitrosyl hemoproteins were studied: horse and spermwhale myoglobins which have an histidine residue occupying the distal site, the myoglobin of the mollusk Aplysia brasiliana (Mb Apb) which has no aminoacid residue in the distal site and the erythrocruorin from the earthworn Annelidae Glossoscolex paulistus (Ec AGp) whose structure is no yet known. The results that were obtained with horse and spermwhale myoglobins solutions prepared using liofilized protein from Sigma, show that almost 13% of the myoglobins is in the oxi form (MbA) and the remaining 87% is in the meta form (MbB). The NO binding to MbA is done by simple substitution of the O2 molecule, remaining the iron atom in its ferrous state. With MbB we have a quite different situation and in this case, two steps are needed to obtain the nitric oxide derivative: first the Fe3+ is reduced to Fe Fe2+ and then the NO molecule bind to it, the extention to which this last step occurs, depends on the nitric oxide concentration. If the NO/Mb ratio is equal to or greater than 2/1, the EPR signal is a broad line (B type), as it has been already identified. If the NO/Mb ratio is around 0,2/1, the EPR spectrum (A type) is characterized by a hyperfine splitting similar to that of human deoxihemoglobin in the T conformation. Finally, in the NO/Mb ratio has a value between 0,2/1 and 2/1, the EPR signal observed is due to contributions from both species (AB). Variations in the EPR spectra with temperature is only observed for the A and AB types. Futhermore, it has also been observed that MbB affinity for NO is pH dependent, the lower the pH, more difficult is the completation of the Fe3+ reaction with NO, even IF the NO/Mb ratio is greater than 2/1. The difference between the EPR spectra of MbA and MbB is due to the small but significative differences in the crystal field around the iron atom, thus modifying the N&#949-FE-NO distance. In the MbA case, this gives rise to a spectrum similar to that find for pentacoordinated iron (A type), for MbB the spectrum shows a pattern similar to that find for a hexacoordinated iron atom (B type). The analysis of the EPR spectra of EcNO AGp at various temperatures showed that there is a thermal equilibrium between two hexacoordinated species: species I, which is predominant at a low temperatures and is characterized by a nine-line superhyperfine splitting, and species II, which is predominant at high temperatures, characterized by a broad line EPR spectrum . It was found that in the range of temperatures studied , the EPR signals are due to contributions from two species. The spectral difference made possible to learn about each species independently and the equilibrium. The two species differ in enthalpy by no more than about 2 kcal/mol. At the light of these findings, and compearing with the data found in the literature, it may be postulated the existence of a glutamine at the distal site in Ec AGp. For MbNO Apb, it was found an EPR spectrum exhibiting a nine-line superhyperfine splitting. The EPR spectra at low and high temperatures are similar, but the former are well resolved while in the latter, the superhyperfine splitting is something blurred. Futhermore, it has been possible to learn about the influence of the distal site on the Fe-N-O bond. For horse and spern whale myoglobins, where na histidine occupies the distal site, the EPR spectrum is a broad line which does not change significatively with temperature. For Ec AGp, where a glutamine probably occupies the distal site, the EPR spectra are temperature dependent: at 309.3K it is a broad line and at 103.0K it presents superhyperfine splitting. Finally, for Mb Apb where there is no basic residue occupying the distal site, the EPR spectra are characterized by a nine-line superhyperfine splitting all over the temperature range studied (113.7K to 283,3K).