A form of political disinformation that had a prominent place in journalism during the US presidential election in 2016 was called fake news. There were, however, uncertainties what could be called fake news. The purpose of this study was to explore qualitatively how mainstream media described the word fake news. The data collection approach was inductive. Data were collected primarily by searching the electronic media databases. The qualitative analysis of 212 articles resulted in two overarching themes which outlines how the concept of fake news has been described in meanstream media. The results of the analysis resulted in the two themes: fabricated lie and distorted truth. The main conclusion is that it circulates two different meanings for the concept of fake news. These definitions of fake news have different meanings, areas of action, actors behind och motives.

This study takes a qualitative approach to contextualizing and examining the communication of the so-called Kremlin trolls on Twitter, in relation to two major political processes that occurred in 2016, namely the Brexit referendum and the U.S. presidential election. Moreover, the study examines the news media of the two respective countries’ portrayal of the “Kremlin trolls”. The study assesses and problematizes mainstream application and contemporary usage of terminology in relation to two phenomena central to this thesis, namely: “Kremlin trolls”, and “fake news”. The study reconceptualizes the respective concepts into the “Kremlin meddlers” and “deceitful news”, as it was found those terms more accurately reflect both phenomena. Two sets of empirical data are examined in the thesis, one of which consists of 62 posts derived from 14 accounts of the Kremlin meddlers’ Twitter accounts. The other consistsof 30 articles stemming from 10 different news outlets, 5 of which were U.K. news outlets and 5 U.S. news sites, covering the political spectrum from one end to the other. The study applies one theoretical framework toexamine both sets of empiricaldata, namely Teun van Dijk’s Critical Discourse Analysis. The Kremlin meddlers’ Twitter accounts used two strategies to influence the electorates of both countries, one of which was to hide under the guise of pseudonyms impersonating actual citizens of the two nations. The other strategy employed by the meddlers was to maintain accounts that simulated news outlets, acting and appearing much like a legitimate news outlet would on the platform. The communication of the Kremlin meddlers was primarily aimed atsupporters of the ideological right by (re)producing discourse highly critical of the ideological left, this is particularly so for the Twitter accounts seeking to impersonate actual people. The pursuit of ideological polarization is centralin their communication.In the news media’s portrayal of the meddlers,differences are foundacross the ideological spectrum. The study identifies three themesin the discourse; one portraying the meddlers’ in a humanizing view, one creating a Them vs. Us categorization between Russia and the West, and the last focusing on the meddlers’ impacton democratic processes. Intrinsic to all of the themes is the (re)production of elite discourse, primarily seen through the selective use of voices from the symbolic elite to construct the social reality.

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate young people's approach to media consumption. The presumed objective of the thesis is to ascertain the method that young users apply to evaluate the credibility of news sources in the media. In the first theoretical part the thesis explains the status of the media in the information age and changes related to the field. It also discusses the need for media literacy and its possible development via media education. The chapter finishes with an overview of the most important data from recent studies concerning young people and the media. Second part consist of a qualitative research that is inspired by the research design of the theory by Strauss and Corbin (1999). Data for this research were obtained from 21 in depth interviews among 18 and 19 years old Czech citizens. The open coding was used for the analysis. The outcome of the analysis was interpreted through the method of constant comparation. The result of the research is a creation of four typological user groups according to the type of use of the news resources in the media.

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La presente investigación examina los mecanismos en que se puede evidenciar la desinformación y la posverdad en el periodismo de opinión. Para abordar este tema, se elabora un instrumento que identifica estos mecanismos en el contenido de las columnas de opinión de Aldo Mariátegui y Luis García, en los diarios Perú21 y Expreso respectivamente, que tratan sobre el segundo proceso de vacancia contra el expresidente Pedro Pablo Kuczynski desde que este proceso empezó hasta un día luego de que el presidente Martín Vizcarra entrara al cargo. El primer capítulo se dedica a la explorar el origen de la posverdad en la desinformación, así como a analizar qué elementos estos comparten y cómo se ha dado su traspase de uno al otro. Asimismo, se delimitan los mecanismos de la desinformación y posverdad que se relacionan al periodismo de opinión: falacias como la ad populum, la afirmación gratuita y la generalización precipitada; así como términos de descalificación personal y referencia a noticias falsas. En el segundo capítulo se explora y se da un recuento del estado del periodismo de opinión en Perú. Posteriormente, se elabora un instrumento para examinar las columnas escogidas, y se analizan los hallazgos de ese proceso. Estos hallazgos nos revelan que en las columnas analizadas se podía advertir que el uso de estos mecanismos de la desinformación y posverdad, falacias y términos de descalificación personal, reemplazaban la argumentación necesaria para sostener sus posturas. / The following research examines some mechanisms that can show the presence of disinformation and post-truth in opinion journalism. To address this issue, it develops an instrument that helps to identify these mechanisms in the content of the opinion columns of Aldo Mariátegui and Luis García, in the newspapers Perú21 and Expreso respectively, that comment on the second impeachment process against former President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski. The period of analysis took place since the process started until one day after President Martín Vizcarra took office. The first chapter explores the origin of post-truth in disinformation, as well as analyzing what elements they share and how they have transferred from one to the other. Likewise, the mechanisms of disinformation and post-truth that are related to opinion journalism are delimited: fallacies such as ad populum, gratuitous affirmation and hasty generalization, as well as name-calling (adjectives of personal disqualification) and reference to fake news. In the second chapter, this research explores the context and state of opinion journalism in Peru. Subsequently, an instrument is developed to review the chosen columns and analyse the findings of this process were discussed. These findings reveal that in the opinion columns that were analyzed, the use of these disinformation and post-truth mechanism, as fallacies and name-calling (adjectives of personal disqualification), replaces the arguments needed to defend their stances. / Tesis

La pandemia del covid19 ha evidenciado una realidad en los periódicos mundiales: la fortaleza de la web. El papel y tinta han ido, con el pasar de los años, alejándose de los fieles lectores quienes fueron migrando a la par del boom tecnológico hacia el ciberespacio. Las ventajas que ofrece esta multiplataforma hacen que el contenido pueda ser mucho más rico y los periodistas tengan la función de informar usando diferentes lenguajes. La avalancha de la información en las redes hace que los medios de comunicación tengan una lucha contante con los fake news y desinformación, pero esto ha generado también un consumidor mucho más activo y que, en muchos casos, produce gran parte de esta información. Con todo ello, se busca analizar los retos y posibilidades de los medios actuales tomando el caso de Perú21, medio local que ha evidenciado una fuerte presencia en redes sociales y que, desde su aparición en el año 2000 ha ido adaptándose a las exigencias de la nueva era informática. Bajo esta línea, estamos frente a una nueva realidad no solo de vida social, sino también informativa. La publicidad, smartphones y usuarios han encontrado en la web un formato mucho más amigable, más extenso y con mayor espacio para el debate. Esto nos lleva a estar a puertas de una manera distinta de consumir la información diaria. Los tabloides y tintas han quedado como un recuerdo con mucho sentimiento, no solo para los lectores, sino también para los periodistas. Es hora de darle la bienvenida a la nueva manera y forma de hacer periodismo: el ciberespacio. / Since the creation of the World Wide Web in the 1990, things have change dramatically for the news media. Every single outlet needed a web page, to the point that Internet is the main source to read news in the World today. Moreover, the creation of social media started the democratization of the news environment, a new one where everybody could be a journalist. The published newspaper is in dire straits, the profession questioned, sources of income -like advertising- are no longer secure. Even worse, the covid-19 pandemic has taken all this to the extreme. Therefore, thousands of media sources have closed, and the use of Artificial Intelligence is taking the jobs of the average journalist. This situation has been addressed with creativity by outlets like The New York Times and El País, focusing in quality and reader loyalty. In Peru, this transformation has affected all its traditional media and the way they present news. This investigation addressed the effect, the changes and the possibilities of Peru21, the first newspaper to embrace the Web in the country, and their change of strategy to engage with the public and generate revenues, especially due to the 2020 pandemic. / Trabajo de investigación

Esta investigación tiene como tema central identificar los mecanismos y recursos que el periodismo digital de investigación realiza como mecanismo de investigación ante la difusión de las Fake News. Se decidió abordar los recursos y mecanismos que el periodismo de investigación digital ejecuta frente a la difusión de noticias falsas durante la pandemia de la COVID19, teniendo en cuenta el manejo de las cifras de muertes por IDL Reporteros, Convoca y Ojo Público. Este trabajo busca identificar los criterios y referentes que el periodismo digital de investigación utiliza. Para esto se realizó una metodología cualitativa y se optó por elegir un corpus representativo de tres reportajes de los espacios periodísticos mencionados anteriormente. Asimismo, se diseñó un instrumento de análisis a partir de cuatro subcategorías que nos permitió identificar los mecanismos de investigación digital y la forma correcta de uso. Una vez finalizada la investigación, se llegó a la conclusión de que sí existe una relación entre las fake news y el periodismo digital de investigación, ya que los mecanismos de investigación que se usaron para evitar las noticias falsas en los reportajes mostrados sí fueron eficaces. Asimismo, se puso en evidencia que aunque el avance tecnológico haya favorecido notablemente a los medios de comunicación, si la búsqueda de información no es trabajada con responsabilidad podría causar desinformación que perjudique a la sociedad. / The main theme of this investigation is to identify the mencanimes and resources that digital investigative journalism performs as an investigative mechanism before the dissemination of Fake News. It was decided to address the resources and mechanisms that digital investigative journalism executes against the dissemination of false news during the COVID19 pandemic, taking into account This work seeks to identify the criteria and references that investigative digital journalism uses. For this, a qualitative methodology was carried out and it was decided to choose a representative corpus of three reports from the journalistic spaces mentioned above. Likewise, an analysis instrument was designed based on four subcategories that allowed us to identify digital research mechanisms and the correct way of use. Once the investigation was completed, it was concluded that there is a relationship between fake news and digital investigative journalism, since the investigative mechanisms that were used to prevent false news in the reports shown were effective. Likewise, it was made clear that although technological progress has notably favored the media, if the search for information is not handled responsibly, it could cause misinformation that harms society. / Trabajo de investigación

This study examined the topic of growing news consumption on Instagram and the impact that could have on the spread of misinformation. The purpose was to establish if there was an issue with news being mixed into a platform with Swedish influencers. Furthermore, the study aimed to examine whether young adults were faced with risks when consuming news on Instagram.  An experiment was conducted in order to research if influencers liking posts were able to further mislead young adults. The experiment occurred in a web survey where 196 respondents participated. Respondents were exposed to a fabricated health related news post about vaccinating against covid-19. Comparing the result of those who saw the stimuli and those who only saw the unliked news post, resulted in indications that influencers were able to further mislead young adults. Spearmans rank correlation showed a significant correlation, 0.289**, between source-credibility and message-credibility. The influencers did not need to have an expertise in the area of health. Nonetheless, they could still increase the trustworthiness to health-related news by approximately 29% as indicated by the results. In order to protect young adults from misleading news, Instagram needs to separate influencers from public health news. In addition, influencers need to be informed that their social media post interactions could produce consequences. Further research could be qualitative, finding out reasons behind the social validation. Furthermore, future research could categorize the influencers investigated. / Denna studie undersökte den växande nyhetskonsumtionen på Instagram och påverkan förändringen kan ha på spridningen av falska nyheter. Syftet var att upptäcka eventuell problematik när nyheter integreras på en plattform med svenska influencers. Dessutom ämnade studien att undersöka unga vuxnas potentiella risker när de konsumerade nyheter på Instagram. Ett experiment genomfördes för att undersöka huruvida influencers kunde gillade-markera nyhetsinlägg på Instagram och ytterligare missleda unga vuxna. Experimentet genomfördes i en webbenkät där 196 respondenter deltog. Respondenterna tog del av ett fabricerat hälsorelaterat nyhetsinlägg om vaccinering mot covid-19. Genom att jämföra resultatet av dem som fick ta del av stimuli och de som endast såg det ogillade nyhetsinlägget påvisades indikationer på att influencers kunde missleda unga vuxna ytterligare. Spearmans rangkorrelation visade en signifikant korrelation på 0,289** mellan informants-tillförlitlighet och informations-tillförlitlighet. Influencerna visade sig inte behöva en expertis inom hälsa och vård. Resultatet indikerade att de ändå kunde öka tilliten till en hälsorelaterad nyhet med ungefär 29%. För att motarbeta unga vuxnas missledning bör Instagram särskilja influencers från nyhetsinlägg. Dessutom bör influencers informeras om hur deras interaktioner med inlägg på sociala medier kan ge konsekvenser. Vidare forskning kan vara kvalitativ och redogöra för anledningar till den erhållna sociala bekräftelsen. Dessutom kan framtida forskning kategorisera de undersökta influencerna.

En la presente investigación, se analizó la construcción de la noticia de los programas Beto a Saber y Rey con Barba en la cobertura periodística del COVID-19; y como a través de su discurso se ha propiciado la desinformación. Para ello, se ha partido del contexto pandémico actual y se ha contrastado con escenarios pasados similares en donde la prensa peruana ha tergiversado muchas veces la data al momento de informar. Además, se han tomado en cuenta los conceptos e implicancias del “periodismo digital”, puesto que la web es la plataforma en donde se han transmitido y alojado los programas en cuestión. También, se ha abordado el tema de las fake news y cuáles han sido las condiciones para que estas hayan tenido tanta acogida por parte de la audiencia en medio de una pandemia. Otro punto importante que se desarrolla es como un medio de comunicación como Willax puede llegar al punto de hacer un periodismo carente de investigación, de verificación y de ética profesional y aun así poder seguir al aire en señal abierta y en sus plataformas digitales. / In the present investigation, the construction of the news of the Beto a Saber and Rey con Barba programs in the journalistic coverage of COVID-19 was analyzed; and how misinformation has been fostered through his speech. To do this, we have started from the current pandemic context and contrasted with similar past scenarios where the Peruvian press has often misrepresented the data at the time of reporting. In addition, the concepts and implications of “digital journalism” have been taken into account, since the web is the platform where the programs in question have been transmitted and hosted. Also, the issue of fake news has been addressed and what the conditions have been for it to have been so well received by the audience in the midst of a pandemic. Another important point that is developed is how a communication medium like Willax can reach the point of doing journalism lacking in investigation, verification and professional ethics and still being able to continue on the air in open signal and on its digital platforms. / Tesis

El objetivo principal de la presente investigación es identificar los mecanismos y recursos que el periodismo digital de investigación utiliza para frenar la difusión de las fake news. Para ello se analizan seis reportajes publicados en los portales de Ojo Público, IDL Reporteros y Convoca y entre el 11 de diciembre de 2020 y el 6 de marzo de 2021, todos ellos relacionados con la cobertura del proceso de vacunación contra la COVID-19 desarrollado en el Perú. Para el análisis de la muestra se diseñó un instrumento que permitió identificar los mecanismos de investigación digital utilizados y priorizados, así como la forma en la que fueron usados. La investigación concluye que los medios digitales Ojo Público, IDL Reporteros y Convoca utilizaron recursos y mecanismos de verificación durante el proceso de vacunación contra la COVID-19 en Perú en el período del 11 de diciembre de 2020 al 6 de marzo de 2021 para contrarrestar las fake news de manera diferenciada: Ojo Público utilizó con más frecuencia las fuentes especializadas, IDL Reporteros priorizó el empleo de bases de datos y Convoca aprovechó en mejor medida los recursos digitales en los reportajes analizados. / The main objective of this research is to identify mechanisms and resources that investigative digital journalism uses to stop the spread of fake news. To do this, six reports published on Ojo Público, IDL Reporteros and Convoca and portals between December 11, 2020 and March 6, 2021 are analyzed, all of them related to the coverage of vaccination process against COVID-19 developed in Peru. For the analysis of the corpus, an instrument was designed that made it possible to identify digital research mechanisms used and prioritized, as well as the way in which they were used. The investigation concludes that Ojo Público, IDL Reporteros and Convoca used resources and verification mechanisms during the coverage of vaccination process against COVID-19 in Peru from December 11, 2020 to March 6, 2021 to counter fake news in differentiated ways: Ojo Público used specialized sources more frequently, IDL Reporteros prioritized use of databases and Convoca made better use of digital resources in the analyzed reports. / Tesis