This study investigated management positions for women in the apparel manufacturing industry of Virginia in regard to ownership and size of firm, type of production, products produced, incidence of females employed, and criteria for employment of managerial personnel. The sample consisted of 33 management employees from different garment production plants in the state. The questionnaire, developed for collection of data through personal interviews, was pretested with three plant managers and with faculty and graduate students. Interviews were completed in March, 1977. The chi-square test of independence tested possible relationships between the total number of females in management positions in relation to gross sales of firms, type of apparel manufactured, and total number of men having managerial responsibilities. There was a significant difference at the .05 level, between the number of women in management positions in relation to gross sales of the plants surveyed and type of garments produced; more females had managerial responsibilities in firms with annual sales over $5,000,000; and manufactured apparel for women, misses, and juniors. There also was a significant difference between the total number of females in relation to the total number of males in management positions. Men held a larger proportion of the top and middle level positions than women; females had a majority of the lower management and production worker jobs. A large proportion of managers who responded seemed to believe the fallacies about females in management which suggested that this may b~ one reason why few women held upper level roles. Garment production firms in Virginia tended to be closed corporations; employed less than 300 people; had gross annual sales over $1,000,000; had only one production plant; and were classified as manufacturers. Some respondents recommended that individuals aspiring to top and middle management positions have a college education and that supervisory personnel have a high school diploma. Many firms preferred that all employees have previous work experience in the same type of garment production. / Master of Science

This study examined the challenges that female educational managers face in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Pakistan. The purposes of the study were: to explore the challenges that female educational managers face in maintaining and obtaining their managerial positions, to identify the strategies that they employed in coping with those challenges, and to validate the participant questionnaire in KPK. This is a qualitative case study that was conducted in three phases: exploration, reinforcement, and validation. The data were collected through interviews, observations, and field notes. In the first and second phase, nine female managers from three districts participated, while the third phase engaged 15 participants. This study found that participants faced challenges at both the entry and workplace levels and that the challenges limited participants’’ efficiency and effectiveness in their managerial roles. Participants identified professional development courses, collaboration, acknowledgement, flexibility, and accountability as effective strategies for dealing with challenges. Finally, the study found the participant questionnaire to be a valid instrument (with modifications) in the context of KPK. It can be proved a useful tool to collect data on a larger scale. This study recommends a prerequisite degree in educational leadership for future educational managers, a proper induction method for new managers, and some policy- level changes that would empower managers to deal with challenges effectively. It concludes that the Participant Questionnaire is a cross-culturally valid tool and can be utilized by researchers in Pakistan, as well as other countries. Keywords: challenges to females in educational management, politics and educational management, female management in Pakistan

Det har skjedd store omstillinger og moderniseringer i norsk offentlig sektor. Mange norske kommuner har innført flat organisasjonsstruktur med to mydighetsnivåer. Desentralisering av ansvar til utførernivå, myndiggjøring og sterk ledelse er sentrale trekk. Den økte effektiviseringen av helse- og omsorgstjenestene, kombinert med økt krav til resultater og rasjonalisering, har hatt negativ innvirkning på arbeidsmiljøene. Tjenesteområdene er store kvinnearbeidsplasser og behovet for oppmerksomhet rundt kvinnenes innsats i norske velferdstjenester er stort. Hensikten med studien er å få kunnskap om hvordan kvinnelige ledere av omsorgstjenestene opplever og håndterer presset mellom økonomisk knapphet og det økende behovet for offentlige velferdsoppgaver, og om hvilken betydning kjønn, tjenestens innhold og struktur, samt ledernes profesjonelle fagbakgrunn, har for ledelse. Det er gjort kvalitative intervjuer med ti kvinnelige ledere av sykehjem og hjemmetjenester i en større bykommune i Norge. Konklusjon: Hovedfunn i studien er at ledelse i to-nivåmodell er kontekstuelt betinget, og styrere og soneledere utfører ledelse forskjellig. Desentralisering av ansvar gir tilsynelatende makt og myndighet over ressurser og budsjett. Styrerne opplever å ha alle muligheter til å lykkes og opplever mestring i jobben. Sonelederne utøver ”avmektig lederskap” og har et distansert forhold til systemet oppover. Familien er en viktig støtte og grensesetter for begge ledergruppene. / There have been great readjustments and modernizations within the Norwegian public sector. Many Norwegian local authorities have implemented a flat organizational structure with 2 levels of authority. Decentralization of responsibility to level of execution, empowerment, and a strong management are key features. The increased efficiency of health- and care services, combined with increased demands for results and rationalization, have had a negative effect on the work environment. The health and care services are large female workplaces, and the need for attention around the female contribution to the Norwegian welfare sector is great. The purpose of this study is to gain knowledge about how female leaders within the welfare sector perceive and handle the pressure that arises between the lack of funds and the increase in demand for public welfare services. Furthermore, it explores the significance gender, the services’ content and structure, and professional backgrounds of the leaders affect the management. There has been done qualitative interviews with ten female leaders of caring services and institutions for elderly in a larger city municipal in Norway. Conclusion: The main findings in this study is that management in the two-level model, is contextually conditioned, and the directors and zone leaders carry out their management in different ways. The decentralization of responsibility seemingly gives power and authority over resources and the budget. Directors feel they have the opportunity to succeed and experience mastering in their work. Zone leaders perform “powerless leadership” and have a distant relationship with the higher system. Family is an important support and also sets boundaries for both of the managerial groups / <p>ISBN 978-91-85721-22-1</p>

Dvidešimto amžiaus pabaigoje moksliniai tyrinėtojai vis didesnį dėmesį atkreipė į skirtingus vadovavimo stilius tarp vyrų ir moterų. Moteriško vadovavimo ypatumai siejami su bendradarbiavimu, komandiniu darbu, o vyriški vadovavimo ypatumai - konkurencingumu ir autoritetingumu. Pastaruoju metu atlikti tyrimai atskleidžia, kad moterys labiau nei vyrai linkusios taikyti transformacinį vadovavimo stilių, o transformacinis vadovavimo stilius siejamas su efektyviu vadovavimu. Tyrimo objektas - verslo moterų vadovių vadovavimo ypatumai. Tyrimo tikslas - atskleisti verslo moterų vadovių vadovavimo ypatumus. Tyrimo uždaviniai: • Atskleisti šiuolaikinio vadovavimo sampratą, • Išryškinti vyriškus ir moteriškus vadovavimo ypatumus, • Išryškinti moterų vadovių vadovavimo požymius, • Įvertinti verslo moterų vadovavimo efektyvumą ribojančius veiksnius. Tyrimo metodai: 1) Tyrimo duomenų rinkimo – apklausa internetu ir mokslinės literatūros analizė. 2) Tyrimo duomenų analizės – aprašomoji statistika. Tyrimo išvados. Teorinės analizės išvados: 1) Šiuolaikinio vadovo ypatumai: įžvalgus ateities vizijų kūrimas, socialiniai įgūdžiai, pasitikėjimas savimi, atvirumas naujai patirčiai, visuomeninės galios motyvai ir intuicija. 2) Verslo vadovas, norėdamas išlaikyti organizacijos konkurencingumą šiuolaikinėmis dinamiškomis rinkos sąlygomis, turi ne tik efektyviai atlikti vadovo funkcijas, bet ir tapti stipriu verslo lyderiu. 3) Išskirti vyriški vadovavimo ypatumai - orientacija į užduotį... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / The researchers have paid closer and closer attention towards the difference in management style among men and women by the end of XX century. The peculiarities of female management are related to the cooperation and team work. While the peculiarities of male management – competitiveness and authority. The recent findings reveal that women are intent to apply transformative management style more than men. Transformative style is associated with the effective management. The research object: The peculiarities of business women managers’ management. The goal of research: To reveal the peculiarities of management of business women. The tasks of research: • Reveal the concept of contemporary management, • Specify the peculiarities of female and male management, • Specify the attributes of female managers management, • Assess the factors restricting the business women managers’ management. Research methods: 1) Research data gathering – questioning on internet and scientific literature analysis. 2) Research data analysis – descriptive statistics. Research conclusions. Conclusions of theory analysis: 1) The peculiarities of the contemporary manager: insightful creation of the future visions, social abilities, self-confidence, openness to the new experience, social power motivation and intuition. 2) Business manager, willing to maintain the competitiveness of organization in conditions of contemporary dynamic market, must fulfill duties of manager effectively and become a strong... [to full text]

Denna studie belyser hur det multinationella byggföretaget NCC arbetar med kvinnligt ledarskap. Syftet med studien är att undersöka skillnaden mellan manligt och kvinnligt ledarskap utifrån kvinnliga ledares perspektiv. Bakgrunden till undersökningen grundas i att kvinnor alltid varit underrepresenterade i den mansdominerade byggbranschen, inte minst på ledande positioner. Således är det intressant att studera detta ämne från kvinnors synvinkel. Vidare delges samt jämförs skillnader i ledarskap mellan Sverige och Finland. Sverige anses vara ett av det mest jämlika länderna i världen och därför är det intressant att granska om skillnader finns mellan Sverige och grannlandet Finland. Metoden som tillämpats för att besvara frågeställningarna är en kvalitativ fallstudie med semistrukturerade intervjuer. Intervjuerna har utförts med kvinnliga ledare från Sverige respektive Finland. Resterande data är av sekundär karaktär och består av tidigare forskning samt litteratur inom det berörda ämnet. Resultatet som genererats från studien visar att de kvinnliga ledarna inte anser att det finns några större skillnader på ledarskapet mellan män och kvinnor, utan att det är på individnivå. Respondenterna menar att könet inte spelar någon roll utan det viktigaste är att vara en bra ledare, dock framkom det att kvinnor har en viss svårighet att klättra i karriären. NCC arbetar aktivt med att främja kvinnor till ledande positioner genom nätverket Stella som dock endast finns i Sverige. Vidare identifierades att det finns skillnader mellan det svenska och finska ledarskapet. / This study reviews how NCC, a multinational company in the construction industry are working with female management. The purpose of this study is to see if there are any differences between male and female leaders, from a female leaders perspective. The background of the study is the fact that women always have been underrepresented in the construction industry, not least in leading positions. Thus, it is interesting to investigate the subject from women's point of view. Furthermore the reader gets an insight in differences between leadership in Sweden and Finland. The method used in this study is a qualitative method with semi- structured interviews conducted with female leaders from Finland and Sweden. The remaining data is secondary and consists of previous research and literature within the subject. The results show that the female leaders do not consider there to be any major differences between men and women’s management, it depends more on the person itself and not their sex. Even though, the respondents still feel that women face more obstacles in their career than men do. NCC is actively working to encourage women to reach leading positions through their female network, Stella. Furthermore the study identifies some cultural differences between the two countries.

Enligt undersökningar som chefsorganisationen Ledarna publicerar årligen finns det en återkommande problematik med att rekrytera unga kvinnor till chefspositioner. Syftet med examensarbetet är att undersöka vad som kan inverka på kvinnors vilja att söka en chefstjänst och att utforma en HR strategi som främjar och motiverar kvinnor att söka chefstjänster. Unga kvinnor kan känna tvekan inför chefskap på grund av känslan av bristande erfarenhet och svårighet med att identifiera sig med den stereotypa chefsnormen. Aspekter av chefskapet som motiverar är möjligheten att kunna påverka, fatta beslut samt personlig utveckling. Att en chef har hög arbetsbelastning är något som omnämns som negativt samtidigt som att utmaningen i chefskapet lockat intervjupersonerna. Fokus på svårigheter med att balansera chefskap och privatliv/familjeliv kan vara en generell förklaring till att färre unga kvinnor väljer en chefskarriär. Chefskapet innebär i många fall en möjlighet till flexibel arbetstid, vilket gynnar balansen mellan arbets- och privatliv. En nyckelfaktor för att kombinera chefskap med familj och barn är en jämställd fördelning av hushållsarbete och ansvar för barnen. Flera av intervjupersonerna har fått sin tjänst genom uppmuntran, något som varit avgörande för att anta chefskapet. För att motivera unga kvinnor till chefstjänster behövs ett engagemang där potentiella kvinnliga chefer upptäcks och uppmuntras till karriär. Arbetet grundas på en kvalitativ ansats med semistrukturerade intervjuer som insamlingsmetod. Resultaten har analyserats utifrån den teoretiska referensram som sammanställts inom fokusområdet. Genomgående följer arbetets uppbyggnad de tematiseringar som baseras på frågeställningarna: Vad är det som gör att unga kvinnor kan tveka inför chefskap? Vad kan motivera unga kvinnor att vilja bli chef? Hur kan arbetslivet som chef kombineras med privatlivet/familjelivet? Hur kan rekrytering förbättras för att motivera unga kvinnor att söka chefstjänster? / According to surveys conducted by the organization Ledarna, there is a recurrent problem of recruiting young women to senior positions. The purpose of this essay is to investigate what may affect women's desire to seek a managerial position and to design a HR strategy that promotes and motivates women to seek executive positions. Young women feel doubtful about manager positions because of the feeling of lack of experience and difficulty identifying themselves with the stereotype manage standard. Aspects of the management that motivate are the ability to influence, make decisions and gain personal development. The fact that a manager has a high workload is something that is referred to as negative while the challenge in the manager position attracted the interviewees. Focusing on difficulty in balancing work and private/family life can be an overriding explanation that fewer women choose a managerial career. In many cases, the manager position offers an opportunity for flexible working hours, which benefits the balance between work and private life. A key factor in combining management positions with family and children is an equal distribution of household work and responsibility for the children. Several of the interviewees have gained their position through encouragement, something that was crucial for the manager position. In order to motivate young women into management positions, engagement is needed in which female executive subjects are discovered and encouraged to career. The work is based on a qualitative approach with semi structured interviews as a collection method. The results are analyzed based on the theoretical reference frame compiled within the focus area. Throughout the structure of the work, the thematic approaches are based on the questions: What is it that makes young women doubt about leadership? What can motivate young women to want to become a manager? How can work life as a manager be combined with privacy/family life? How can recruitment be improved to motivate young women to seek executive positions?