Group size affects individual and collective vigilance levels of prey species. As individual vigilance decreases with increasing group size, the indirect risk of predation to each individual and the group as a whole will also decrease (dilution and many-eyes effect) which may have a decreasing effect on stress responses on group level as well. Where predation risk is low, other factors like group size might influence stress-related glucocorticoid output in prey species. I test the relationship between group size and individual and collective vigilance levels in a plains zebra (Equus burchelli) population living in an environment with low adult predation risk due to the absence of lions (Panthera leo) in the Dinokeng Game Reserve (DGR). I also test for an effect of season (wet vs. dry) on these levels. Vigilance levels are expected to be higher in summer than winter, due to a seasonal influence on susceptibility to predation or the ease of predator detection. Finally, I test if the presence of foals in a band influences individual and collective vigilance levels. Mothers are expected to increase their vigilance levels since foals are most susceptible to predation by smaller predators in the reserve. I also aimed to specifically investigate how group size affects adrenocortical endocrine activity in male and female individuals of plains zebra bands living in an environment with low predation risk. With an increase in group size, and individual vigilance expecting to decrease, the indirect risk of predation to each individual and the group as a whole will also decrease (due to both dilution and many-eyes effect) which may decrease stress on group level as well. Affiliative social interactions between females could also have the effect of improving fitness and reducing stress levels in this species. We therefore evaluated the reliability of different enzyme-immunoassays (EIA) for monitoring glucocorticoid metabolite levels in plains zebra faeces by conducting an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenge test and associated translocation event. Individual vigilance decreased with group size, confirming a classic group size effect; while collective vigilance remained constant meaning individuals could reduce their own scanning and rely on scanning by other group members. Individual vigilance differs between seasons, with higher levels recorded in summer, but no seasonal effect is found on rate of scanning and collective vigilance. Interestingly, bands with foals have a lower level of individual vigilance than bands without foals, which may be due to added nutritional stress on mothers during lactation. A constant collective vigilance level means mothers may be able to increase foraging time without increasing predation risk. I successfully identified two group-specific EIAs as suitable for assessing adrenocortical endocrine activity in male and female plains zebra, but gender-specific differences in response to ACTH administration and translocation were detected. In winter, bands of free-ranging plains zebra differ significantly in terms of faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) output, but due to the fact that the bands tested also differed in size as well as composition, the potential band size effect were analysed for males and females separately. Males in bands of greater size exhibit higher FGM levels than males in small bands; explained by the females’ need for protection, resource competition and reproduction pressure. FGM levels in females did not differ between bands of different sizes, indicating that potential changes in vigilance behaviour per se might not alter FGM output in a low-predation risk environment. This study confirms firstly, the classic group size effect on vigilance in plains zebra in this low predation risk environment and secondly, that group size and sex should be considered when looking at FGM levels in this social species. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

Functionally graded materials (FGMs) are advanced materials and their main characteristic is microstructure and composition variation over the volume of the specimen. This variation of the composition results in changing of material properties in the component. In FGMs usually there are two different types of powder materials such as metal and ceramic powders which are mixed to build up the graded region. These grade layers are placed between the metal and ceramic layers and by this approach a smooth and gradual transient from metal to ceramic can be achieved.Sintering is the main technique to manufacture these types of materials. During the sintering process, cooling of the specimen from sintering temperature to room temperature results in generation of thermal residual stresses within the material. These thermal stresses may cause crack propagation and failure of the material.Distribution analysis of these thermally induced stresses within the material has been carried out in this thesis work. Finite element package ABAQUS has been used in order to simulate the distribution of the thermal residual stresses in the materials. In order to achieve the optimal design for different geometries the parametric study also has been performed. For example influence of number of layers, mixing ratio and porosity has been investigated.Based on the finite element results for cylindrical and cuboid models, non-linear composition variation for both geometries has no improving effect in terms of induced thermal residual stresses. Porous material shows less thermal stress than non-porous material. As the amount of porosity for individual layer was considered in simulation process, this approach resulted in decreasing of thermal stresses within the material. Moreover, non-uniform thickness of graded layers was not beneficial for stress reduction. This variation of thickness results in increasing of thermal residual stresses within the material.

Kenya is one of the Sub-Saharan countries that continue to experience incidences of FGM among various ethnic communities. While FGM prevalence has reduced significantly in the last decade due to government crackdowns and the adoption of relevant anti-practice laws, several Kenyan communities continue to circumcise girls and women secretly. The current study sought to examine the role of socioeconomic factors in the continuation of FGM in Kenya. The study was guided by the tenets of structural functionalism. This theory was selected because of its efficacy in explaining how institutions such as family, economy, and education contribute to the persistence of FGM among Kenyan communities. The study utilized grounded theory as the principal methodology. Research materials in this study included scholarly sources published in credible databases. The strong association between marriageability and FGM, Islam, cultural rigidity, the fear of social stigma, the view of circumcision as a rite of passage, and the perceived safety offered by medicalization have ensured the continuation of the practice. From an economic standpoint, the depiction of FGM as a prerequisite to bride price, as well as the monetization of the practice by medical practitioners and families, have contributed significantly to its persistence.

This thesis concerns subject of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C), ritual commonly - but inaccurately - named female circumcision. In the thesis I analyze two autobiographical texts written by women who got through the FGM/C - Mutilated written by Senegal author Khady and Desert Flower by Somali author Waris Dirie. Aim of this thesis is to analyze view point of two women who have direct experience with FGM/C, to add more information to research of this ritual and to strengthen effort to understand structural reasons for its existence and continuance. I attach myself to the side of opponents to FGM/C and by this thesis I'd wish to help to banish this ritual. My effort is connected with my feminist conviction but also with human rights discourse. ABSTRAKT Tato diplomová práce zkoumá problematiku Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C), rituálu u nás běžně - avšak nepřesně - nazývaného ženská obřízka. V diplomové práci analyzuji dva autobiografické příběhy žen, které prožily FGM/C. Jedná se o knihy Zmrzačená od senegalské autorky Khady a Květ pouště od somálské autorky Waris Dirie. Cílem tohoto výzkumu je analyzovat pohled dvou žen na rituál FGM/C, připojit další informace ke zkoumané problematice FGM/C, a tak rozšířit nejen znalosti týkající se rituálu samotného, ale zejména podpořit snahu...

Over 200 million women and girls alive today have been victims of Female Geni-tal Mutilation / Cutting, and another 3,6 million are at risk every year. This tradi-tional practice is widespread and has gained a lot of attention from Non-governmental organizations, scholars and medical professionals around the world, stating warnings about the harmful effects. Yet, the prevalence and continuance are still not regressing in a desirable rate. Many countries have enacted legislative actions against the practice, among these countries is the West African nation of The Gambia. The purpose of this qualitative study is to examine and analyse what experiences and perceptions NGOs in The Gambia have with using legislative ac-tion against FGM /C, how their work has changed due to the legislation as well as examine their perception on local community attitudes towards the law. This has been done using the theories of Cultural Relativism vs Universalism and through selected concepts within Hofstede's Theory of Cultural Dimensions. This study will theorise what happens when a law representing western norms and values gets implemented in a society where culture, traditions and the collective group is high-ly important. Our findings show that The Gambia, in particularly local communi-ties, holds a strong cultural relativistic mentality and is characterized by a collec-tivistic culture in which the power distance is high. This society puts emphasis on collective identity, solidarity and collective decisions as well as traditional heritage and cultural values. Implementing a law that promotes western values thus brings problems and a lack of efficiency.

The aim of the study was to examine how advocacy workers from different governmental and non-governmental organisations work with female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and gender equality in The Gambia. We further examined their experienced difficulties and the provided support to women exposed to FGM/C. The study was based on field observations of events, meetings and educational events, as well as semi-structured and open-ended interviews with ten participants. Through a thematic analysis, findings show that counselling were the main form of support, and the most experienced difficulties was the male dominance, the cultural belief and the culture of silence. Education, traditional forums and advocacy where therefore used as informative tools regarding gender roles, power positions and the harmfulness of FGM/C. Thus, findings confirm the importance of the continuous work with the gender roles, the social exclusion of the unmutilated women and the gatekeeping roles hindering the abandonment of the harmful practice.

Bakgrund: Kvinnlig könsstympning innebär helt eller delvist avlägsnade av de externa genitalierna. Detta är ett globalt hälsoproblem och omkring 200 miljoner flickor/kvinnor i världen beräknas vara könsstympade. Varje år riskerar ytterligare 3,9 miljoner flickor att utsättas för könsstympning. Ingreppet anses vara ett sätt att kontrollera sexualitet och heder hos kvinnor. Kvinnlig könsstympning kan ge allvarliga akuta och långsiktiga komplikationer och konsekvenser för individen. Syfte: Att undersöka vårdpersonals kunskap och attityder till kvinnlig könsstympning. Metod: Totalt åtta empiriska artiklar med kvantitativ metod inkluderades i denna litteraturstudie. Dessa granskades och analyserades för att sedan sammanställas. Sökningarna av artiklarna utfördes i databaserna PubMed och Cinahl. Resultat: Resultatet av litteraturstudien presenteras i tre huvudkategorier (kunskap, utbildning och attityder) varav två av dessa även har underkategorier. Kunskaps- och utbildningsnivån hos vårdpersonal visade sig vara låg och attityderna varierade. Konklusion: Vårdpersonal behöver mer kunskap och utbildning om kvinnlig könsstympning och även en förändring gällande attityder. För att dra ytterligare slutsatser behövs mer och djupare forskning om ämnet.Nyckelord: Attityd, kunskap, kvinnlig könsstympning, vårdpersonal. / Background: Female genital mutilation involves complete or partial removal of theexternal genitalia. This is a global health problem and around 200 million girls/women inthe world are estimated to be genitally mutilated. Every year another 3,9 million girls areat risk of genital mutilation. The procedure is considered a way to control women's sexuality and honor. Female genital mutilation can have serious acute and long-termcomplications and consequences for the individual. Aim: The aim was to examine the knowledge and attitudes of healthcare professionalstowards female genital mutilation. Methods: A total of eight empirical articles with quantitative method was included in thisliterature study. These were quality checked, analyzed and then compiled. The searches forthe articles were performed in the databases PubMed and Cinahl. Results: The results of the literature study are presented in three main categories(knowledge, education and attitudes), two of these also have subcategories. The level ofknowledge and education turned out to be low and the attitudes varied. Conclusion: Healthcare professionals need more knowledge and education about femalegenital mutilation and a change in attitudes is requierd. In order to be able to draw furtherconclusions, more and deeper research on the subject is needed.

This essay examines the prevalent practice of female genital mutilation (FGM) in Ethiopia and Somalia, focusing on the multifaceted consequences faced by women who undergo this procedure. FGM, deeply entrenched in the cultural fabric of both nations. This essay scrutinizes the physical and psychological repercussions experienced by women as a result of this gender-based practice.  Furthermore, this research extends its scope to investigate how the scarcity of water and limited access to proper hygiene facilities exacerbate the challenges faced by women who have undergone FGM. In regions plagued by water scarcity, where hygiene resources are insufficient, these challenges become even more pronounced, amplifying the risk of infections and complications.  By delving into the intersection of FGM, gender dynamics, and the environmental challenges linked to water scarcity, this essay aims to shed light on the unique struggles faced by women in Ethiopia and Somalia. It underscores the urgent need for holistic interventions that address both the socio-cultural aspects of FGM and the environmental factors that compound the physical and psychological consequences faced by women in these regions.  Our chosen research methodology centers around a thorough desk study employing Human Rights Theory, JMP Wash, and the Health Belief Model. This approach is designed to facilitate a comprehensive analysis, seeking to explore potential correlations between Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) and factors related to water and sanitation. The findings presented in this essay provide valuable insights for policymakers, healthcare practitioners, and activists working to combat FGM and improve the overall well-being of women in Ethiopia and Somalia.

It is argued that Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) has close ties to local religious traditions. At the same time, the international community has agreed on eliminating FGM. Therefore, this thesis investigates the friction between a local tradition and international pressure. Using the method of qualitative content analysis, the thesis analyses the reports from three different international non- governmental organizations (NGOs) to examine how they have designed their programme for eliminating FGM. Three organizations were selected on the basis of their attitude towards religion, as FGM is closely linked to local religious traditions. The results of the reports are analysed using a coding scheme based on theories of religion as a social construction, approaches to human rights and power structures. This paper discovered that an NGO's relationship to religion influences who participates in the programme, and that all of the organizations recognized that they require assistance from local actors to gain access to local communities to implement social change. Findings show that each organization fills a gap the others fail to access. Together, the three development programmes include a large local population as well as national agencies.

Female Genital Mutilation is a cultural and historical practice engrained in the African Culture.This practice is part of the African Rite of Passage; where a young girl passes on from being achild into being a grown woman. According to Martha Nussbaums’s Capability Approach thispractice undermines the woman and violates her rights as a human being, on the other handMelville Herskovits’ Cultural Relativist theory encourages acceptance and respect of the variouscultures and their beliefs; thus making female genital mutilation a cultural tradition that shouldbe respected like any other tradition around the world.