Background: Long QT syndrome (LQTS) is a cardiac condition which predisposes individuals to syncope, seizures, and sudden cardiac death. There is a high prevalence of congenital LQTS in a First Nations community in Northern British Columbia due to the founder variant p.V205M in the KCNQ1 gene. Additionally, two other variants of interest are present in this population: the KCNQ1 p.L353L variant, previously noted to modify the phenotype of LQTS in adults, and the CPT1A p.P479L variant, a metabolic variant common in Northern Indigenous populations associated with hypoglycemia and sudden unexpected infant death. Methods: We performed a mixed methods study to better understand the impact of LQTS in children and youth in this First Nations community. To learn about the clinical impact of LQTS, and better understand the effects of the KCNQ1 and CPT1A variants in children, we used statistical analysis to compare the cardiac phenotypes of 211 First Nations children with and without the p.V205M, p.L353L and p.P479L variants, alone and in combination. Ordinary Least Squares linear regression was used to compare the highest peak corrected QT interval (QTc). The peak QTc is an electrocardiogram measurement used in risk stratification of LQTS patients. Logistic regression was used to compare the rates of syncope and seizures experienced in childhood. Additionally, to learn about the lived-experience of LQTS, we interviewed one young First Nations adult about her experiences growing up with LQTS as a teenager. From this interview, we conducted a qualitative case study analysis using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. All research was done in partnership with the First Nations community using community-based participatory methods. Results: We found that the p.V205M variant conferred a 22.4ms increase in peak QTc (p<0.001). No other variants or variant interaction effects were observed to have a significant impact on peak QTc. No association between the p.V205M variant and loss of consciousness (LOC) events (syncope and seizures) was observed (OR(95%CI)=1.3(0.6-2.8); p=0.531). However, children homozygous for p.P479L were found to experience 3.3 times more LOC events compared to non-carriers (OR=3.3(1.3-8.3); p=0.011). With regard to the qualitative portion of the thesis, four superordinate (main) themes emerged from the case study: Daily life with Long QT Syndrome, Interactions with Medical Professionals, Finding Reassurance, and The In-Between Age. We found that even though our participant was asymptomatic and felt that she was not impacted by LQTS in her daily life, she considered certain elements of the condition to be stressful, such as taking a daily beta-blocker. Conclusion: These results suggest that while the KCNQ1 p.V205M variant is observed to significantly prolong the peak QTc, the CPT1A p.P479L variant is more strongly associated with LOC events in children from this community. More research is needed to further determine the effect of these variants; however, our preliminary findings suggest management strategies, such as whether beta-blockers are indicated for p.V205M carriers, may need to be reassessed. The importance of developing a holistic, well-balanced approach to medical care, taking into consideration the personal perspectives and unique medical circumstances of each child is exemplified in this study. / Graduate

Indoor air quality is a critical determinant of physical and mental health. Despite evidence linking poor indoor air quality to adverse health outcomes, this issue is understudied in the context of First Nations children and youth health and wellbeing. The objectives of this study were to (1) characterize indoor air quality, housing conditions, and respiratory health of children living in the Kanesatake First Nation and (2) evaluate the feasibility of using remote community-based participatory methods in the context of First Nations health research. Community-assisted data collection occurred between June 2021 and February 2022 in the Kanesatake First Nation, Quebec. Indoor air data were collected from 31 randomly selected houses. Results showed elevated levels of contaminants, including particulate matter, benzene, toluene, and xylene, compared to the Canadian averages. Houses generally lacked adequate ventilation, and over one-quarter were reported to be in need of major repairs. We developed instruction tools for air sampling and house inspection to facilitate off-site data collection. High rates of participant completion (95%) and low attrition rates (5%) indicated the feasibility of remote community-based participatory research methods. Lessons learnt are summarized and important recommendations are made for adaptation to improve future data collection. This research served as a pilot project for a multi-year, cross-Nation study, as well as the first study to evaluate the indoor air environment in the Kanesatake First Nation.

This dissertation considers the political behaviour of youth in Whitefish River First Nation. This small Ojibway community located near Sudbury, Ontario is used as a case study to inquire into the political experiences, attitudes and behaviour of youth. Rooted in Community-Based Research and Indigenous Research Principles, conversations were carried out in a circle-method referred to as Discussion Circles to assess the political behaviour of youth between the ages of 16 and 25. While this study is heavily qualitative-focused, it includes some quantitative components. These include a youth political participation questionnaire and electoral participation data for Whitefish River First nation in federal, provincial and band elections. Results demonstrate that the youth have a unique experience of politics defined by their identities, community and relationships. Their political behaviour is complex and nuanced. While they may not participate in conventional political activities, they are heavily involved in activities that are rooted in their culture and traditions. The community overall is democratically healthy and tends to participate widely in federal and provincial elections. Youth are for the most part satisfied with their lives in the community, but there are significant challenges due to the consequences of colonialism. Many of these implications affect their political behaviour. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

Human influence extends across the globe, fromthe tallestmountains to the deep bottom of the oceans. There is a growing call for nature to be protected from the negative impacts of human activity (particularly intensive agriculture); so-called “land sparing”. A relatively new approach is “rewilding”, defined as the restoration of self-sustaining and complex ecosystems, with interlinked ecological processes that promote and support one another while minimising or gradually reducing human intervention. The key theoretical basis of rewilding is to return ecosystems to a “natural” or “self-willed” state with trophic complexity, dispersal (and connectivity) and stochastic disturbance in place. However, this is constrained by context-specific factors whereby it may not be possible to restore the native species that formed part of the trophic structure of the ecosystem if they are extinct (e.g., mammoths, Mammuthus spp., aurochs, Bos primigenius); and, populations/communities of native herbivores/predators may not be able to survive or be acceptable to the public in small scale rewilding projects close to areas of high human density. Therefore, the restoration of natural trophic complexity and disturbance regimes within rewilding projects requires careful consideration if the broader conservation needs of society are to be met. In some circumstances, managers will require a more flexible deliberate approach to intervening in rewilding projects using the range of tools in their toolbox (e.g., controlled burning regimes; using domestic livestock to replicate the impacts of extinct herbivore species), even if this is only in the early stages of the rewilding process. If this approach is adopted, then larger areas can be given over to conservation, because of the potential broader benefits to society from these spaces and the engagement of farmers in practises that are closer to their traditions. We provide examples, primarily European, where domestic and semi-domestic livestock are used by managers as part of their rewilding toolbox. Here managers have looked at the broader phenotype of livestock species as to their suitability in different rewilding systems. We assess whether there are ways of using livestock in these systems for conservation, economic (e.g., branded or certified livestock products) and cultural gains.

Abstract : The Mi’gmaq colonial experience is not unique among North American Native peoples, but being among the earliest in Canada to be colonized by Europeans, who arrived largely from the East, our people have had to contend with over 500 years of colonization and assimilation. The goal of this research is to explore the cultural practices of continuity and cultural memory as applied in selected examples of Mi’gmaq stories/literature, past and present. As a Mi’gmaq woman, having spent most of my life in the First Nations community of Listuguj in Quebec, I felt the need to focus my research on Mi’gmaq culture and stories. I believe our culture is rich and interesting in its history, language, and literature; I wish to showcase this in my thesis. By providing an overview of the still emergent literature of the Mi’gmaq Nation in its various forms (storytelling, novel, memoir, autobiography, poetry), I intend to illustrate that the Mi’gmaq people as well as their culture and language have been and still are continuously evolving. The stories presented in this thesis assure cultural continuity by creating and keeping a collective memory in the form of narratives that can be read, expressed, and interpreted many times over. My own understanding of cultural continuity stems from the Mi’gmaq sense of culture which is made up of three aspects: traditions, consciousness or identity, and language. I identify “continuity” as the forward-motion study of culture and the consistent existence of Mi’gmaq values, knowledge, and stories and how they have continuously evolved. Mi’gmaq culture is in a constant state of renewal while it still upholds a sense of influence from our collective past. Jan Assmann’s theorization of the concept of cultural memory is a way society ensures cultural continuity by transmitting its collective knowledge through generations. In accordance with Assmann’s notion of cultural memories as stores of knowledge from which members of a community construct their collective and individual identities, my idea of “cultural memory” is deeply related to narrative memory in the sense that story (in its many forms) inevitably preserves, defines, and transmits memories as well as teachings of Mi’gmaq culture and beliefs. Through the (re)interpretation of past stories and the formation of new ones, Mi’gmaq literature constitutes a means of defining our cultural identity for ourselves and for others. The forward motion of cultural continuity in my study does not idealise a pre-colonial past nor does it encourage leaving our shared history behind, but rather I wish to demonstrate that Mi’gmaq literature re-members and shapes our cultural past as it relates to our ever-evolving present to assist us on our journey towards the future. The goal of my thesis is to show that examples of Mi’gmaq traditional and modern literature and stories depict a Mi’gmaq culture and identity that is not stunted in the past, but rather syncretises cultural memories and visions for the future. The four chapters in this paper reflect the past, present, and future of Mi’gmaq stories, though not in a strictly linear manner. By means of applied reading of selected texts and exploring the significance of the past in the present and its relationship towards the future, I intend to represent a mixture of linear and cyclical concepts of time. Chapter One will begin in the past with a discussion of the cultural practice and functions of traditional Mi’gmaq storytelling and pre-colonial worldview. This chapter illustrates how Mi’gmaq history and traditional stories are interrelated as stores of cultural memory and knowledge. Chapters Two and Three explore differing patterns present in contemporary Mi’gmaq literary representations. Chapter Two explores the issues of Native cultural authenticity as well as the myths of the “Imaginary Indian” (Daniel Francis) and the “timeless condition” (Anne-Christine Hornborg), which posit Native culture and peoples as relics of the past with no future. Namely by analyzing two historical novels with Mi’gmaq characters that are written by non-Mi’gmaq authors, The Deserter (2010) by Paul Almond and Cibou (2008) by Susan Young de Biagi, this chapter presents the importance of questioning and analyzing what we as Mi’gmaq people read about our own culture. Chapter Three depicts Mi’gmaq self-representation in the form of non-fiction residential school Survivor narratives, specifically Out of the Depths by Isabelle Knockwood and Song of Rita Joe by Rita Joe. Both authors write about the past in order to encourage individual and collective healing, following residential school experience, with a hopeful vision for the future. Having both survived the assimilatory and abusive system of the Shubenacadie Residential School in Nova Scotia, Knockwood and Joe depict personal, and sometimes contrasting, views of the residential school legacy. Deena Rymhs’ parallel analysis of residential schools as prisons, how residential schooling caused a significant rupture in cultural continuity by enacting spatial and ideological diaspora as defined by Neal McLeod, as well as Aboriginal resilience and healing are key theorizations in this chapter. Finally, Chapter Four looks at the discourse of the past in the present in examples of Mi’gmaq contemporary literature. The notions of belonging and identity construction are significant in Mi’gmaq literature. In the colonial past (and to an extent still today), Native peoples have not been in control of their own cultural identities. In order to contextualize the current issues surrounding Mi’gmaq/Native identity that are reflected within the narratives in this chapter, Indian Status as a legal identity conferred on Native peoples and its implications on personal and cultural identity as well as community belonging are explored. Keeping in mind the negotiations of both ascribed and self-ascribed cultural identities, Stones and Switches by Lorne Simon, My Mi’kmaq Mother by Julie Pellissier-Lush, two books for children by Michael James Isaac, as well as selected poetry by Shirley Kiju Kawi, will be analysed with a view to recognizing a modern hybrid Mi’gmaq identity. On the whole, Mi’gmaq people (and those who wish to learn more about Native and Mi’gmaq people) can always find useful and relevant information in our collective past. Mi’gmaq storytelling and literature, in their multitude of forms, represent viable stores of cultural memories that link both past and present traditions, values, and realities as our culture moves into the future. / Résumé : Ce travail de recherche vise à explorer les pratiques de continuité et de mémoires culturels en utilisant une variété d'exemples provenant de la littérature Mi'gmaq du passée et du temps présent. L'expérience colonial du peuple des Premières Nations Mi'gmaq n'est pas unique en ce qui concerne les Autochtones d'Amérique du nord mais ils ont cependant été parmi les premières Nations autochtones à être colonisés au Canada par les Européens, qui sont arrivés de l’est, et ont donc eu à vivre avec les effets de plus de 500 ans de colonisation et d'assimilation. En tant que jeune femme Mi’gmaq, ayant vécue la majeure partie de ma vie dans la communauté des Premières Nations de Listuguj, Québec, j’ai senti le besoin de centrer mes recherches sur la culture et les histoires Mi’gmaq. Dans ce mémoire, je souhaite mettre en valeur la richesse de l’histoire, la langue et la littérature de mon peuple. En donnant un aperçu de la littérature encore émergente de la Nation Mi’gmaq sous ses différentes formes (les contes, les romans, les mémoires et biographies, la poésie, etc.), ce projet a pour but d’illustrer que la culture et le peuple Mi’gmaq sont en évolution constante. Les histoires présentées au cours des chapitres suivants s’inscrivent dans une tradition de continuité culturelle car elles créent et entretiennent une mémoire collective sous la forme de récits qui peuvent être lus, exprimés et interprétés à de nombreuses reprises. Nous définissons le terme "continuité" comme étant l'étude de la culture et de l'existence persistante des valeurs, des connaissances et des histoires Mi'gmaq ainsi que la façon dont ces éléments ont évolués au cours de leur existence. Deux aspects importants de la continuité culturelle sont la littérature et la langue. Dans ma conception de continuité, je m’informe de la définition Mi’gmaq du concept de la culture qui comprend trois aspects : les traditions, l’identité et la conscience, et la langue. J’identifie la notion de continuité comme étant un mouvement vers l’avant dans l’étude de la culture et de la survie des valeurs, de la connaissance et des histoires Mi’gmaq en relation avec leur évolution dans le temps. Effectivement, la culture Mi’gmaq est en constant état de renouvellement. Sa littérature reflète cette réalité en contribuant à préserver et à rétablir les traditions et les valeurs du passé tout en détenant une vision directrice et encourageante pour l’avenir de notre culture, de notre identité collective. Les exemples de littérature traditionnelle et moderne Mi’gmaq tracent alors une ligne de continuité dans le temps qui avance vers le futur avec l’information culturelle du passé. La culture Mi’gmaq est en état de renouvellement continuel tout en conservant ses racines dans notre passé collectif. La théorisation du concept de mémoire culturelle par Jan Assmann est une façon pour la société d'assurer une continuité culturelle en transmettant son savoir collectif à travers les générations. Conformément à la notion de mémoires culturelles d'Assmann en tant que réserves de connaissances à partir desquels les membres d'une communauté construisent leurs identités collectives et individuelles, notre interprétation du terme "mémoire culturelle" est profondément liée à la mémoire narrative, parce qu'une histoire dans toutes ses formes va préserver, définir et transmettre inévitablement les souvenirs, l'histoire, les croyances et les enseignements de la culture Mi'gmaq. Par la réinterprétation des textes traditionnels du passé et la création de nouvelles histoires contemporaines, la littérature Mi’gmaq constitue un moyen de définir notre identité culturelle autant pour nous-mêmes que pour les autres. La proposition d’un mouvement vers l’avant, vers l’avenir au cœur de notre recherche n'a pas comme but d'idéaliser le passé précolonial ni d'encourager l'abandon de notre histoire partagée, mais de démontrer que la littérature Mi'gmaq commémore et forge notre passé par sa relation avec notre présent en constante évolution pour nous assister dans notre voyage à travers le temps, vers un futur. L’objectif de ce projet est de démontrer que des exemples de littérature Mi’gmaq (traditionnel et contemporain) mettent en valeur une culture et une identité Mi’gmaq qui n’est pas éclipsé par les ombres de son passé, mais au contraire, s’informe et s’inspire des mémoires culturelles de son passé afin de mieux s’épanouir de manière créative au temps présent et d’assurer sa continuité dans le futur. Les personnes Mi'gmaq, leur culture et leur langue ont été et sont encore en évolution continuelle. Ces quatre chapitres reflètent le passé, le présent et le futur des histoires Mi'gmaq mais pas nécessairement de façon strictement linéaire. En faisant lecture critique d'une sélection de textes et en explorant la signification du passé pour le présent et sa relation envers le futur, nous avons l'intention de représenter une combinaison d'éléments relatifs aux concepts du temps, d'un point de vue à la fois cyclique et linéaire. Chapitre Un débute dans le passé en étudiant la fonction des histoires traditionnelles Mi'gmaq et la vision précoloniale de celles-ci. Le premier chapitre illustre comment les rapports historiques et les contes traditionnels sont étroitement liés en ce qui concerne leur valeur en mémoire et en connaissance culturelle. Certains aspects de la mythologie/cosmologie traditionnelle Mi’gmaq y ont expliqué à travers deux exemples de contes précoloniaux. De plus, la perspective Mi’gmaq dans certains rapports historiques coloniaux sont explorer. Ensuite, dans les Chapitres Deux et Trois, les diverses représentations littéraires actuelles des histoires Mi'gmaq sont explorées. Le deuxième chapitre examine les grandes questions de l’authenticité culturelle ainsi que les mythes de l’Indien rêvé (Imaginary Indian de Daniel Francis) et de la condition intemporelle (« timeless condition » de Anne-Christine Hornborg) qui positionnent les cultures et les peuples amérindiens comme des vestiges du passé sans avenir. Notamment avec l’analyse de deux romans historiques à propos de personnages Mi’gmaq au 17e siècle écrits par des auteurs non-Mi’gmaq : The Deserter (2010) de Paul Almond (traduit en français en 2013 sous le titre Le déserteur) et Cibou (2008) de Susan Young de Biagi, ce chapitre présente l’importance de questionner et analyser ce que nous lisons à propos de notre propre culture. Les deux romans sont le fruit d'une recherche historique détaillé sur l'histoire Mi’gmaq à l'époque de (ou un peu avant) la colonisation. Cependant, la représentation des personnages Mi’gmaq ne va pas au delà du champ d'application limité du passé colonial et perpétue les exemples de stéréotypes qui se retrouvent souvent dans la littérature populaire et romantique à propos de la culture amérindienne d'aujourd'hui. Le troisième chapitre reflète l’autoreprésentation littéraire Mi’gmaq sous la forme de récit documentaire de survivants de pensionnats indiens, particulièrement Out of the Depths de Isabelle Knockwood et Song of Rita Joe de Rita Joe. Ayant survécues au système d’assimilation et d’abus du pensionnat indien de Shubenacadie au Nouvelle-Écosse (le seul pensionnat pour enfants autochtones de ce genre à être établi dans les provinces maritimes du Canada), Knockwood et Joe écrivent leur passé (et donnent voix à plusieurs autres survivants et survivantes) dans leurs récits afin de favoriser le processus de guérison et de réconciliation au niveau individuel et collectif en encourageant la voie à un avenir plus prometteur. Par la lecture de ces récits de vie, ce chapitre découvre les blessures physiques et psychologiques infligées aux cultures amérindiennes par le système des pensionnats. L'analyse parallèle de Deena Rymhs sur les pensionnats autochtones en tant que prisons, comment la vie dans les pensionnats autochtones a causé une rupture significative dans la continuité culturelle en promulguant une diaspora idéologique et spatiale comme définie par Neal McLeod ainsi que la résilience et la guérison autochtone sont des éléments clés de la théorisation de ce chapitre. Finalement, dans le quatrième chapitre, nous explorons les thèmes du passé reliés au présent par des exemples de la littérature Mi'gmaq contemporaine. Les notions d'appartenance et de construction d'identité sont significatives dans la littérature Mi’gmaq. Durant la période colonial (et dans une certaine mesure, encore aujourd'hui), les Autochtones n'ont pas été en contrôle de leur identité culturelle. Afin de mettre en contexte les problèmes actuels affectant les Mi’gmaq/Autochtones et qui se reflètent dans les histoires qui se retrouvent dans ce chapitre, le statut d'indien en tant qu'identité légale accordée aux Amérindiens et ses implications sur l'identité personnelle et culturelle ainsi que l'appartenance à la communauté amérindienne sont explorées. En gardant à l'esprit les négociations entre l'identité culturelle accordée et l'identité culturelle choisie, le roman Stones and Switches de Lorne Simon, la mémoire My Mi’kmaq Mother de Julie Pellissier-Lush, les deux livres pour enfants écrits par Michael James Isaac ainsi que des sélections de la poésie par Shirley Kiju Kawi seront analysée dans le but d'y reconnaitre l'hybridité de la nouvelle identité Mi'gmaq moderne. Dans l'ensemble, les Mi’gmaq, et les gens voulant apprendre à connaitre davantage les Autochtones et les Mi’gmaq, peuvent trouver de l'information pertinente dans notre passé collectif. Les histoires et la littérature Mi'gmaq, dans ses multiples formes, représentent des réserves de connaissances viables qui relient les traditions, les valeurs et les réalités du passé et du présent au fur et à mesure que notre culture progresse vers l'avenir.

The Haida language, Xaad Kil is dangerously close to extinction and in need of heroic action. The purpose of this study is to find out what ancient traditions and beliefs we could incorporate into our language revitalization efforts. Drawing on archival literature and community knowledge, I found almost 100 traditional ways to support Xaad Kil revitalization. There are four main chapters: Haida foods, Haida medicines, Haida rituals and ceremonies and Haida supernatural beings that could contribute to Xaad Kil revitalization. The food chapter features two-dozen traditional foods from salmon to berries that support a healthy lifestyle for Haida language speakers and that could strengthen our connections to the supernatural world. The Haida medicine chapter features two dozen traditional medicines from single-delight to salt water that could heal, strengthen and purify the Haida language learner. The ritual and ceremony chapter features over two-dozen rituals from devil’s club rituals to labret piercing ceremonies that could strengthen Haidas and our language learning. The supernatural being chapter features twenty-three supernatural beings including Greatest Crab and Lady Luck that could bring a language learner wealth, knowledge, luck and strength. This study suggests that a Xaad kil learner and the Xaad kil language need to be pure, protected, connected, lucky, strong, healthy, respected, loved and wise. The path to these qualities is within the traditions and beliefs featured in this research. This study is significant because it shows that the language revitalization answers are within and all around us. / Graduate / 0290 / 0326 / lucybell@uvic.ca

Cedar, represented by Western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and Yellow Cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) was known as the “Tree of Life” to the Nuu-chah-nulth on Vancouver Island’s west coast, and most other groups of the Pacific Northwest. This thesis investigates the Culturally Modified Trees (CMTs), or more specifically Tapered Bark Strips (TBS), created through the extraction of cedar bark removed for all manner of material goods. CMTs are now the most common archaeological site type within British Columbia. Current regional chronologies have inherent biases that make interpretations difficult. The chronologies created through Archaeological Impact Assessments (AIAs) are weighted heavily to the contact period and the highest frequency of use corresponds with indigenous population collapse rather than peak. Investigations are made into the true distribution of existing CMT features. This thesis details the survey of 16 recent old growth cedar clearcuts which found extensive unrecorded CMT features that have recently been logged throughout the southern Nuu-chah-nulth study region. Half of all TBS scars in exposed stumps were found embedded within healed trees, otherwise invisible to archaeologists. Comparing all AIA report dates (surveyed prior to logging activity) with all post-impact assessments surveys it was found the latter contain a greater and older distribution of scarring events corresponding to high First Nations populations before the contact period. The study also compares CMT chronologies with local histories, investigates the antiquity of Northwest Coast CMTs and the indigenous management of cedar trees to maximize bark harvests. The findings of this research hint at the expanded extent of anthropogenic forests in the Northwest Coast, the inadequate recording and heritage protections of CMTs, and what it all means for Aboriginal Land Rights in British Columbia. / Graduate / 0324 0740 0329 / kinze.earnshaw@gmail.com

This thesis will explore how the Supreme Court of Canada understands and frames the religious ways of the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en First Nations peoples, in the case Delgamuukw v. British Columbia (1997). The case started as a land claims case but at the Supreme Court level it became about whether Aboriginal oral knowledge could be used as historical evidence in a Canadian court of law, in particular for this dispute, as an aid for First Nations peoples to establish title to their traditional territories. The Court decided that Aboriginal oral knowledge could be used as evidence. This thesis does five things: 1. It examines some of the tools that can be used to examine and evaluate how the religious ways of Aboriginal peoples are discussed in law in Canada. Here it focuses on using a broad understanding of religion as “lived” to understand religion. It also establishes a social-scientific method of discourse analysis, drawn from a number of sources, to evaluate legal documents. 2. This thesis explores the socio-legal context in Canada in which Aboriginal peoples and their claims need to be understood. Here the presence of European and Christian views that are still present in society and social institutions in Canada and the way they affect how Aboriginal religious ways are understood is determined. The characteristics of law that make it difficult for Aboriginal claims to be understood and handled adequately in court in Canada are also investigated. 3. The third aspect that this thesis focuses on the markers of the religious ways of Aboriginal peoples in the Delgamuukw case and how are they understood in the Canadian socio-legal context. Here there is discussion of oral knowledge, land, crests, feasting and totem poles and what each might mean for the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en peoples and how the legal system might have trouble handling them. 4. Analysis of the Delgamuukw case is the fourth part of this thesis. How the law understands and frames the religious ways of the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en peoples in the Delgamuukw case are investigated. It is determined that the Court downplayed the religious ways of Aboriginal peoples (by “writing out”, by using vague language to refer to it or by not mentioning it at all); it did not do justice to Aboriginal beliefs by labeling oral knowledge as “sacred”; the Delgamuukw decision fell short of really treating oral knowledge as equal to other forms of historical evidence by excluding oral knowledge with religious content; legal adjudicators made pronouncements on the religious uses of land for the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en and finally; land was quantified, regulated and title was diminished by the ability for the court to infringe on it. What these actions by the Court suggested about how it understands religion and the religious ways of Aboriginal peoples where also contemplated. It was noted that the law characterized issues and used language in particular ways to avoid discussing religion, to discount it as evidence, and used a Christian understanding of religion to comprehend Aboriginal religious ways, which did not do justice to their beliefs. 5. The last part of this thesis questions whether there other ways in which the law, and the majority of non-Aboriginal peoples in Canada, could come to better understand and handle the religious ways of Aboriginal peoples than they did in the Delgamuukw case. It determines that there are a number of indications that suggest that this is possible including, the unique historical situation of Canada, the teaching and communication skills present in many Aboriginal communities, the space opened surrounding the inclusion of oral knowledge as evidence in law, increasing dialogue with Aboriginal communities, and the current revaluation of history. Nevertheless, there is also an ambivalence on behalf of the law regarding whether or not it will go in the direction that could view Aboriginal religious ways in alternative ways which could result in a better understanding these ways on their own terms. The thesis concludes that according to analysis of the Delgamuukw case, law has difficulty understanding and handling the religious ways of Aboriginal peoples in Canada.

Picking up on current research about settler colonialism, this study uses a modified version of a model explaining modern-state formation to explain settler-colonial formation. Charles Tilly identified two simultaneous processes at work – war-making and state-making which produced modern states in Western Europe. Settler-colonial systems engage(d) in a particular type of war to produce their existence: total war. Hence, a modified version of total-war-making and settler-colonial-existence-making (production) occuring in the settler-colonial-creation phase is proposed. However, before this conceptual analytical framework could be developed, it was necessary to examine the meanings of terms such as 'nation' and ‘nation-state’ as well as concepts such as settler-colonialism and total war. The sample of relevant literature analyzed revealed inconsistencies in the meanings of the terms when applying W.H. Newton-Smith’s theory of meaning, suggesting the influence of what Edward Said identified as the workings of orientalism. This has conceptual implications on terms such as settler-colonialism and the meaning of the type of war it wages upon the indigenous nations. It also has implications on developing a conceptual analytical tool to understand the dynamics of the production of the settler-colonial existence. Thus, the terms and concepts needed to be de-orientalized before using them in the modified model which was then used to examine initially three settler-colonial cases: the United States, Australia and Apartheid South Africa. The modified analytical model was able to highlight particular dynamics relevant to settler-colonial systems and was then used – with the incremental and imbricate research done in the first three chapters – to examine the Zionist case. It illustrated that while the cases of the United States and Australia were able pass their creation phases, the Apartheid case could not and subsequently collapsed. The Zionist case seems to be still in its settler-colonial-creation phase. This has implications on current analysis concerning the Palestinian-Israeli conflict.

Coastal Indigenous Peoples worldwide have relied on fish and other marine resources for millennia, and continue to do so despite recent degradation of ocean systems. Their traditional ecological knowledge, comprised of experiences, observations, beliefs, and lifeways, is relevant for modern marine management and conservation. This thesis explores the utility of traditional and local ecological knowledge for extending an understanding of changes over time for places or periods in which scientific data are unavailable. This thesis had three goals: 1) undertake research that is collaborative and inclusive, and that addresses priorities established by participating First Nations; 2) contribute to fisheries management and conservation recommendations by focusing on a species of cultural importance and exploring the applications of traditional and local ecological knowledge to species-level understandings; and 3) contribute a marine social-ecological case study that investigates the use of traditional and local ecological knowledge to understand change over time and provides appropriate context. Two main objectives allowed me to accomplish my goals: 1) demonstrate the application of traditional and local ecological knowledge to establish historical baselines that extend farther back in time than scientific surveys, and investigate reasons for changes, and 2) investigate the utility of a social-ecological trap framework in assessing impacts to a social-ecological system and identifying ways to escape such a trap. My case study occurred in collaboration with four First Nations (as many Indigenous Peoples of Canada are called) on the Central Coast of British Columbia, Canada. My methods included semi-structured interviews with knowledge holders to examine traditional and local ecological knowledge of a culturally and economically important species, Yelloweye rockfish (Sebastes ruberrimus). In this study, I interviewed First Nations fishers and Elders (n=43), asking about: observed changes to the body sizes (length) and abundance of this species over the last ~60 years, the factors driving these changes, stewardship principles or traditional management strategies, concerns for marine resources, and perceived opportunities for cultural revitalization. I then quantified the interview participants’ current and historical estimates of size and abundance, compared interview data to current biological survey data, and qualitatively analyzed responses regarding stewardship, culture, perceived threats, and cultural solutions. I utilized the framework of a social-ecological trap to analyze responses about stewardship, traditional stories or management, and threats to culture, selecting illustrative quotes to contextualize the lived experiences of participants. Overwhelmingly, respondents had observed a decrease in Yelloweye rockfish body sizes since the 1980s. Median historical length observed by participants was nearly twice the modern length. Participants reported substantial decrease in Yelloweye rockfish abundance since the 1980s, and most stated that this change was evident in the early 2000s. Sizes of modern Yelloweye rockfish estimated by participants resembled measurements from ecological data recorded concurrently at the study region. Thus, my study extends baseline historical data of Yelloweye rockfish reliably by about 50 years. Questions about traditional stories and culture revealed the presence of a social-ecological trap created and reinforced by the interplay between species decline and colonization (e.g. the residential schooling system). When asked about traditional management or stewardship practices, only one participant could remember specific traditional stories about Yelloweye rockfish, though all participants expressed adherence to the stewardship principles of taking only what is needed and respecting all life. Though participants expressed concern about the muting of traditional ecological knowledge, culture, and language, they also highlighted key ways towards revitalization and Indigenous resurgence. The ubiquitous presence of stewardship principles suggests there are ways beyond the social trap: participants described on-going cultural revitalization efforts, recovery of depleted species and ecosystems, and the reassertion of Indigenous management rights as ways to overcome problems inherent to the social-ecological trap. My research adds to a growing body of literature that supports the use of traditional and local ecological knowledge in marine management and conservation science. Adding to this literature, my work suggests the significant value of traditional and local ecological knowledge for filling gaps in historical scientific data or in data-poor regions, and highlights the importance of appropriately contextualizing Indigenous knowledge. To overcome the social-ecological trap of knowledge loss and to achieve informed marine management, reassertion of Indigenous management rights and application of traditional management strategies to modern fisheries management is vital. / Graduate / 0326 / 0768 / 0416 / eckertleckert@gmail.com