Adolescents with behavioral difficulties and emotional and behavior disorders (EBD) or other health impairment (OHI) have demonstrated deficits in reading, and these deficits appear to remain stable or worsen over time. Reading fluency is an essential skill for overall reading achievement, yet relatively few studies have addressed reading fluency intervention for adolescents, particularly adolescents with behavioral difficulties. This study used a multiple baseline across participants design to evaluate the effect of a repeated reading intervention on the reading fluency and comprehension skills of middle school students with reading difficulties and behavioral difficulties and EBD or OHI. The intervention involved repeated reading combined with an audio-recorded model and cues to read for comprehension. Working independently at a classroom computer, participants received six to nine minutes of daily supplemental fluency instruction over a four-week period. Instruction involved listening to an audio recording of a model reading a passage, receiving cues to read for understanding, reading the passage aloud while using the computer to record the reading, listening to the recording, and reading the passage aloud again while recording. Results indicated no functional relation between the intervention and the number of words correct per minute or the percentage of comprehension questions answered correctly. However, on-task behavior did improve during study session when compared with on-task behavior during regular classroom instruction. The findings of the study have implications for addressing the needs of adolescents with behavioral difficulties who have reading difficulties.

Difficulties in speech production are often marked by disfluency; fillers, hesitations, prolongations, repetitions and repairs. In recent years a body of work has emerged that demonstrates that listeners are sensitive to disfluency, and that this affects their expectations for upcoming speech, as well as their attention to the speech stream. This thesis investigates the extent to which delay may be responsible for triggering these effects. The experiments reported in this thesis build on an Event Related Potential (ERP) paradigm developed by Corley et al., (2007), in which participants listened to sentences manipulated by both fluency and predictability. Corley et al. reported an attenuated N400 effect for words following disfluent ers, and interpreted this as indicating that the extent to which listeners made predictions was reduced following an er. In the current set of experiments, various noisy interruptions were added to Corley et al.,'s paradigm, time matched to the disfluent fillers. These manipulations allowed investigation of whether the same effects could be triggered by delay alone, in the absence of a cue indicating that the speaker was experiencing difficulty. The first experiment, which contrasted disfluent ers with artificial beeps, revealed a small but significant reduction in N400 effect amplitude for words affected by ers but not by beeps. The second experiment, in which ers were contrasted with speaker generated coughs, revealed no fluency effects on the N400 effect. A third experiment combined the designs of Experiments 1 and 2 to verify whether the difference between them could be characterised as a context effect; one potential explanation for the difference between the outcomes of Experiments 1 and 2 is that the interpretation of an er is affected by the surrounding stimuli. However, in Experiment 3, once again no effect of fluency on the magnitude of the N400 effect was found. Taken together, the results of these three studies lead to the question of whether er's attenuation effect on the N400 is robust. In a second part to each study, listeners took part in a surprise recognition memory test, comprising words which had been the critical words in the previous task intermixed with new words which had not appeared anywhere in the sentences previously heard. Participants were significantly more successful at recognising words which had been unpredictable in their contexts, and, importantly, for Experiments 1 and 2, were significantly more successful at recognising words which had featured in disfluent or interrupted sentences. There was no difference between the recognition rates of words which had been disfluent and those which were affected by a noisy interruption. Collard et al., (2008) demonstrated that disfluency could raise attention to the speech stream, and the finding that interrupted words are equally well remembered leads to the suggestion that any noisy interruption can raise attention. Overall, the finding of memory benefits in response to disfluency, in the absence of attenuated N400 effects leads to the suggestion that different elements of disfluencies may be responsible for triggering these effects. The studies in this thesis also extend previous work by being designed to yield enough trials in the memory test portion of each experiment to permit ERP analysis of the memory data. Whilst clear ERP memory effects remained elusive, important progress was made in that memory ERPs were generated from a disfluency paradigm, and this provided a testing ground on which to demonstrate the use of linear mixed-effects modelling as an alternative to ANOVA analysis for ERPs. Mixed-effects models allow the analysis of unbalanced datasets, such as those generated in many memory experiments. Additionally, we demonstrate the ability to include crossed random effects for subjects and items, and when this is applied to the ERPs from the listening section of Experiment 1, the effect of fluency on N400 amplitude is no longer significant. Taken together, the results from the studies reported in this thesis suggest that temporal delay or disruption in speech can trigger raised attention, but do not necessarily trigger changes in listeners' expectations.

This study contributes to the debate on accounting pedagogy in the basic financial accounting course by examining the pedagogical tool of fluency training as a way to improve student performance. Fluency training has been shown to improve performance of students in other academic disciplines.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of singing-integrated reading instruction on the oral reading fluency and motivation of elementary students in an after school program. Participants were third graders (n = 29) who attended the singing-integrated oral reading fluency (SI ORF) intervention twice a week for eight weeks. Components of the intervention included teacher-modeling of fluent oral reading, oral support, repeated reading and singing activities from a variety of children’s literature, and individual free-time. The adapted Elementary Reading Attitude Survey (ERAS; McKenna & Kear, 1990) measured recreational, academic, and composite reading attitudes. The Qualitative Reading Inventory – 5 (QRI-5; Leslie & Caldwell, 2011) measured the following fluency components: Word Recognition in Isolation (WRI), both Correct Automatic and Total Number Correct, Word Recognition in Context (WRC), and reading rate, calculated as Words per Minute (WPM). Pretests and posttests for components of both assessments were compared using paired-samples t – tests. Data analyses of adapted ERAS mean percentage scores revealed a statistically significant decline in recreational reading attitude, no statistically significant difference in academic reading attitude, and a decline that approached significance in participants’ overall reading attitudes. QRI-5 scores revealed a statistically significant increase from pretest to posttest in WRI Correct Automatic, WRI Total Number Correct, WRC, and reading rate scores. The after-school environment offered a viable option for SI ORF instruction and was free from restraints that can accompany high-stakes testing environments in the traditional school setting. Overall, participants were attentive and enthusiastic, particularly enjoying the singing and repeated lyrics components of the intervention.

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the interactions that take place during a reading apprenticeship which facilitate the learning of reading strategies by adolescent students who are at the middle school level and are still at-risk for reading failure and to investigate how a reading apprenticeship affects reading achievement in the areas of fluency, vocabulary development, comprehension, and the self-perception of the reader. The case study was descriptive and interpretive in nature, and examined two students, each of whom was part of a one-to-one reading apprenticeship. The researcher served as participant observer in both cases and was the teacher in each of the one-to-one reading apprenticeships. The primary data set was qualitative in nature, and elements of quantitative data were also considered. Sessions included pretesting and posttesting using the Classroom Assessment of Reading Processes (Swearingen & Allen, 1997), reading from narrative or expository books, working with words, writing, and dialoguing about the reading. Reading strategies were directly taught, modeled, and reinforced by the teacher/researcher with the goal of the students internalizing the strategies and improving their reading in the areas of fluency, vocabulary development, and comprehension, as well as improving their attitudes toward reading and their self-perception about their reading ability. This study described a reading apprenticeship which positively impacted reading achievement for two students in the areas of fluency, comprehension, and vocabulary development, as well as influencing their motivation for reading and their self-perceptions as readers. The environment of the reading apprenticeship, the dialogue that occurred throughout the reading apprenticeship, and strategy instruction, modeling, and reinforcement were found to be factors and interactions which facilitated learning during this intervention.

Reading fluency—the ability to read accurately, with appropriate pacing, expression, and rhythm—is a fundamental skill for elementary school students to develop (Snow et al. 1998). Reading fluency is related to comprehension skills (Daane et al. 2005; Donahue et al. 1999; Pinnell et al. 1995) and to overall educational achievement (Silberglitt et al. 2006). However, many elementary school students do not reach grade-level reading fluency levels (Hemphill and Vanneman 2011; Pinnell et al. 1995), especially those from low-resource communities or from racial and ethnic minority groups (Donahue et al. 1999; Hemphill and Vanneman 2011). Research has suggested that children who do not develop the ability to read fluently early in the schooling process are likely to experience difficulty learning and comprehending important material from texts introduced in later grades (Chall et al. 1990; Lyon and Moats 1997; Rasinski et al. 2012). Interventions can be effective in improving reading fluency...

Piecewise latent class growth analysis (LCGA) was used to examine growth patterns in reading comprehension and passage reading fluency on easyCBM, a popular formative assessment system. Unlike conventional growth modeling, LCGA takes into account the heterogeneity of growth and may provide reliable predictions for later development. Because current methods for classifying students are still questionable, this modeling technique could be a viable alternative classification method to identifying students at risk for reading difficulty. Results from this study suggested heterogeneity in reading development. The latent classes and growth trajectories from the LCGA models were found to align closely with easyCBM's risk rating system. However, results from one school district did not fully generalize across another. The implications for future research on examining growth in reading are discussed.

Este estudo tem como objetivo traçar o perfil da fluência verbal de surdos oralizados em Português Brasileiro, usuários de Língua Brasileira de Sinais, em relação aos aspectos de velocidade da fala, tipologia das disfluências da fala, e freqüência de rupturas da fala, tanto na produção oral quanto na produção multimodal. O perfil da fluência foi investigado através da análise perceptual de amostras de fala de 12 indivíduos adultos surdos profundos congênitos. A metodologia de coleta e a análise da fluência foi baseada em protocolo brasileiro de avaliação da fluência. Os dados obtidos foram comparados intra-grupo, ou seja, a produção oral dos surdos com sua produção multimodal, e inter-grupos, a produção dos surdos com os parâmetros de fluência de ouvintes falantes de Português Brasileiro. Os resultados indicam que a fluência da fala dos surdos, tanto na produção multimodal quanto na produção oral são diferentes da fluência dos ouvintes. A velocidade da fala dos surdos é mais lenta que a dos ouvintes. Quanto à tipologia das disfluências da fala, os surdos apresentam resultados diferentes dos ouvintes (exceto na produção oral, para disfluências comuns). A freqüência de rupturas da fala dos surdos é superior à dos ouvintes (exceto na produção multimodal, para a porcentagem de descontinuidade de fala). Este estudo evidencia a necessidade de novas pesquisas sobre a fluência verbal dos surdos. / This research aimed to determine the verbal fluency profile of deaf individuals with oral Brazilian Portuguese language and users of the Brazilian Sign Language, in relation to speech rate, type of disfluencies and frequency of speech disruptions, in the oral and multimodal production. The fluency profile was investigated through the perceptual analyses of the speech samples of 12 deaf adults with severe congenital hearing loss. The adopted methodology and the fluency analyses were based on the Brazilian protocol of fluency analyses. The obtained data was analysed within the group, that is, comparing the oral production of the deaf individuals to their multimodal production, and between groups, that is, comparing the oral production of the deaf individuals to the oral production of hearing individuals speakers of the Brazilian Portuguese. The results indicate that the fluency of speech of deaf individuals, in the multimodal and in the oral production, are different than hearing individuals. The speech rate of deaf individuals is slower than that presented by hearing individuals. In relation to the type of disfluencies presented, the deaf individuals present different results than that observed in hearing individuals (except in the oral roduction for the common disfluencies category). The frequency of the speech disruptions presented by the deaf individuals is superior to that of the hearing group (except for the multimodal production for the percentage of speech discontinuity category). This study emphasizes the need of more research about the verbal fluency of deaf individuals.

A utilização do aço ASTM A 335 P91 tem sofrido um aumento considerável, especialmente em função da necessidade de materiais com maior resistência à fluência para aplicações em unidades de utilidades (geração de vapor) e de processo. Por ser um material de difícil soldabilidade, diversos problemas são enfrentados durante a construção das unidades e, posteriormente, durante manutenção, geralmente em função de problemas de soldagem oriundos da fase de fabricação e construção. As normas de projeto e construção utilizadas internacionalmente vêm sofrendo adaptações a fim de melhorar a utilização deste material, mas seus requisitos ainda apresentam importantes lacunas em relação às principais práticas recomendadas pela literatura técnica mais atual. Visando uma melhor utilização deste material, obtendo juntas soldadas com propriedades mecânicas e metalúrgicas mais consistentes, o presente trabalho foi desenvolvido avaliando-se a influência de parâmetros de soldagem energia de soldagem e temperatura de tratamento térmico pós-soldagem (TTPS) sobre as propriedades mecânicas e metalúrgicas, incluindo resistência à fluência, de juntas soldadas de aço ASTM A 335 P91. Foram testadas nove juntas soldadas, combinando três níveis de energia de soldagem com três temperaturas de TTPS. Os resultados obtidos indicam que é possível ter melhor controle sobre as propriedades deste material, desde que se opere com níveis mais restritos de energia de soldagem e maiores temperatura de TTPS, observando-se as limitações pertinentes, especialmente no que tange à temperatura crítica de transformação Ac1. / The use of ASTM A 335 P91 has been increased considerably specially because of the need for materials with higher creep resistance for power generation (nuclear and thermoelectric) and oil and gas processing applications. As this is a material with poor weldability, several issues are faced during construction of these unities, and later during maintenance usually associated with welding problems originated in the fabrication and construction phase. The design and construction codes most used worldwide are receiving important revisions targeting to enhance the use condition of this material but its requirements still show important lacks when compared to the main practices recommended by the more recent technical literature. Aiming a better usage of this material obtaining sound welded joints with more consistent metallurgical and mechanical properties, this work was developed assessing the influence of some welding parameters welding heat input and temperature of post-­weld heat treatment (PWHT) on the metallurgical and mechanical properties, including creep strength, of welded joints of ASTM A 335 P91 steel. Nine welded joints were submitted to testing, combining three different levels of welding heat input with three different PWHT temperatures. The results show that it is possible to have a better control over the properties of this material since it is used lower welding heat inputs combined to higher PWHT temperatures, taking care about the limitations regarding the critical transformation temperature Ac1.

Elever i grundskolan ska ges möjlighet att genom sin engelskundervisning utveckla en allsidig kommunikativ förmåga. Denna förmåga innebär att kunna anpassa sitt språk till olika situationer, syften och mottagare i det engelska språket. När en person talar med flyt utan pauser och stakningar har den ett utvecklat oral fluency. Det krävs en god förkunskap inom språket gällande bland annat vokabulär och grammatik, för att göra det möjligt att kunna tänka och prata samtidigt och på så sätt tala med oral fluency. Syftet med denna kunskapsöversikt är att bidra med en sammanfattning av vad forskning säger om grundskoleelevers utveckling i flyt i talad engelska och mer specifikt besvara frågeställningen: vilka faktorer påverkar grundskoleelevers oral fluency i ämnet engelska? De systematiska sökningar som gjorts har resulterat i ett empiriskt material bestående av 10 vetenskapliga studier, som bearbetats och analyserats. Resultatet av studien säger att de viktigaste faktorerna för att utveckla oral fluency är att bli exponerad för språket, få tillgång till effektiva undervisningsmetoder samt att befinna sig i en trygg studiemiljö.