Este estudo visa à estimativa dos fluxos de calor à superfície a partir de imagens orbitais, com os modelos SEBAL/METRIC e aplicação na modelagem hidrológica, com o modelo SWAT. Para isso, foram utilizados os dados da torre micrometeorológica da Ilha do Bananal, coletados durante os Experimentos do LBA, e os dados pluviométricos e fluviométricos. Os dados utilizados compreendem o período de outubro de 2003 a dezembro de 2006 da sub-bacia do rio Lajeado, localizada na bacia do rio Tocantins- Araguaia no estado do Tocantins. O clima na área de estudo tem sazonalidade bem definida, com períodos chuvosos de outubro a março e secos de abril a setembro. As estimativas a partir dos modelos SEBAL/METRIC variaram em função do tipo de solo, com estimativas coerentes dos fluxos de calor à superfície. Em geral, as estimativas dos fluxos de calor representam uma subestimativa de 10% para todo o período estudado. No entanto, sazonalmente observou-se subestimativas de 17% no período chuvoso e de 35% no período seco. De maneira geral, os resultados da utilização da evapotranspiração estimada por sensores remotos no modelo SWAT foi satisfatória. A assimilação da evapotranspiração a partir de imagens orbitais resultou em valores de COE que variaram de 0,57 a 0,84 com os dados diários e de 0,69 a 0,77 com os dados mensais de vazão. Isto indica melhoria no ajuste do modelo, devido a uma melhoria de 0,27 de COE no dado diário e de 0,08 no mensal. Observou-se ainda, que em termos percentuais a vazão simulada pelo modelo SWAT na bacia do rio Lajeado, após a assimilação dos dados de evapotranspiração, apresentou uma redução no erro, de 13% (superestimativa) para 3% (subestimativa) na vazão diária e de 9% para 7% (subestimativa) na vazão mensal. / This study presents estimate of the heat flow to the surface from orbital images with the models SEBAL / METRIC for use in hydrological modeling with the SWAT model. For this, we used data from micrometeorological tower of Island Bananal, collected during the experiments the LBA, rainfall and hydrological data. The data used is defined for the period October 2003 to December 2006, in the State Tocantins of catchments river Tocantins- Araguaia of the basin river Lajeado. We observed that the climate in the study area is seasonally well-defined with the rainy season from October to March and the dry are from April to September. Estimates from the models SEBAL / METRIC, varied according to soil type, are consistent with estimates of heat fluxes to the surface. In general, estimates of heat fluxes indicated underestimate of 10% for the period studied. However, seasonally there was an underestimates of 17% in the rainy season and of 35% in the dry season. The results of the hydrologic model can be judged satisfactory by the COE values which vary from 0.57 to 0.84 when comparing the streamflow daily data and from 0.69 to 0.77 with streamflow monthly data, with assimilation of evapotranspiration. This indicates benefits to the model, because was observed an improvement of 0.27 in the COE as daily and of 0.08 as monthly. It was also observed that in percentage terms the streamflow simulated by the SWAT model in the basin river Lajeado after the assimilation of evapotranspiration data showed a reduction error of 13% (overestimation) to 3% (underestimate) to the daily flow and from 9% to 7% (underestimate) to the monthly flow.

Submitted by Maria Medeiros (maria.dilva1@ufcg.edu.br) on 2018-08-15T13:45:50Z No. of bitstreams: 1 CAMILLA KASSAR BORGES - TESE (PPGMet) 2017.pdf: 4598580 bytes, checksum: ef4afc927cf3418b3a0269f56b6304a5 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-15T13:45:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 CAMILLA KASSAR BORGES - TESE (PPGMet) 2017.pdf: 4598580 bytes, checksum: ef4afc927cf3418b3a0269f56b6304a5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-08-23 / Capes / Ambientes áridos e semiáridos correspodem a 1/3 da superfície terrestre, nessas localidades a água é elemento importante e limitante para o crescimento da vegetação e produtividade de biomassa do ecossistema. A região semiárida no Brasil compreende em torno de 11,5% do território nacional, onde 76% desta foi originalmente composta pelo bioma Caatinga, tendo o déficit hídrico como característica marcante, média pluviométrica inferior a 800 mm e temperaturas elevadas de médias anuais variando entre 25oC e 30oC. Pesquisas sobre a dinâmica dos fluxos de massa e energia nesses ambientes não têm recebido tanta atenção, apesar de serem especialmente vulneráveis às alterações ambientais. E, técnicas como a de eddy covariance (EC) tem contribuído para estimar a magnitude e padrões das trocas turbulentas entre o ecossistema e a atmosfera. Neste estudo micrometeorológico, para uma área de Caatinga densa (CD) e outra de Caatinga rala (CR), pertencentes ao Instituto Nacional do Semiárido (INSA) em Campina Grande – PB, durantes os anos 2013 e 2014, observou-se que o albedo (α) e o saldo de radiação (Rn) foram mais intensos na CR em comparação a CD, pois a magnitude da radiação de onda curta incidente esteve mais elevada nessa área. Constatou-se que a maior parte da radiação líquida converteu-se em fluxo de calor sensível (H), principalmente durante o período seco na CR, seguida do fluxo de calor latente (LE) e bem menor partição em fluxo de calor no solo (G), em geral cerca de 50% para H e 20% para LE. Constatou-se através do fechamento do balanço de energia que os fluxos turbulentos (H+LE) foram subestimados em relação à energia disponível à superfície (Rn-G), sendo que na CD essa discrepância foi maior chegando a ser superiores a 30%. O ecossitema nos dois locais de estudo atuou como sumidouros de CO2, sequestrando mais de 700 gC/m2 e 550 gC/m2 para a CD e CR, respectivamente. / Arid and semi-arid environments correspond to 1/3 of the terrestrial surface, in these localities water is an important and limiting element for vegetation growth and ecosystem biomass productivity. The semiarid region in Brazil comprises around 11.5% of the national territory, where 76% of this was originally composed by the Caatinga biome, with water deficit as a striking feature, average rainfall less than 800 mm and high temperatures of annual averages ranging between 25oC and 30oC. Research on the dynamics of mass and energy fluxes in these environments have not received much attention, although they are especially vulnerable to environmental change. And, techniques such as eddy covariance (EC) have contributed to estimating the magnitude and patterns of turbulent exchanges between the ecosystem and the atmosphere. In this micrometeorological study, for an area of dense Caatinga (DC) and another of sparse Caatinga (SC) belonging to the National Institute of the Semiarid (INSA) in Campina Grande - PB, during the 2013 and 2014 years, it was observed that the albedo (α) and the net radiation (Rn) were more intense in the SC compared to DC, since the magnitude of incident short wave radiation was higher in this area. It was found that most of the net radiation it converted to sensible heat flux (H), mainly during the dry period in the SC, followed by the latent heat flux (LE) and much smaller partition in soil heat flux (G), usually about 50% for H and 20% for LE. Through the energy balance closure, it was verified that the turbulent fluxes (H + LE) were underestimated in relation to the available energy to the surface (Rn-G), being that in the DC this discrepancy was greater and reaching more than 30%. The ecosystem at the two study sites acted as CO2 sinks, sequestering more than 700 gC/m2 and 550 gC/m2 for DC and SC, respectively.

Este estudo visa à estimativa dos fluxos de calor à superfície a partir de imagens orbitais, com os modelos SEBAL/METRIC e aplicação na modelagem hidrológica, com o modelo SWAT. Para isso, foram utilizados os dados da torre micrometeorológica da Ilha do Bananal, coletados durante os Experimentos do LBA, e os dados pluviométricos e fluviométricos. Os dados utilizados compreendem o período de outubro de 2003 a dezembro de 2006 da sub-bacia do rio Lajeado, localizada na bacia do rio Tocantins- Araguaia no estado do Tocantins. O clima na área de estudo tem sazonalidade bem definida, com períodos chuvosos de outubro a março e secos de abril a setembro. As estimativas a partir dos modelos SEBAL/METRIC variaram em função do tipo de solo, com estimativas coerentes dos fluxos de calor à superfície. Em geral, as estimativas dos fluxos de calor representam uma subestimativa de 10% para todo o período estudado. No entanto, sazonalmente observou-se subestimativas de 17% no período chuvoso e de 35% no período seco. De maneira geral, os resultados da utilização da evapotranspiração estimada por sensores remotos no modelo SWAT foi satisfatória. A assimilação da evapotranspiração a partir de imagens orbitais resultou em valores de COE que variaram de 0,57 a 0,84 com os dados diários e de 0,69 a 0,77 com os dados mensais de vazão. Isto indica melhoria no ajuste do modelo, devido a uma melhoria de 0,27 de COE no dado diário e de 0,08 no mensal. Observou-se ainda, que em termos percentuais a vazão simulada pelo modelo SWAT na bacia do rio Lajeado, após a assimilação dos dados de evapotranspiração, apresentou uma redução no erro, de 13% (superestimativa) para 3% (subestimativa) na vazão diária e de 9% para 7% (subestimativa) na vazão mensal. / This study presents estimate of the heat flow to the surface from orbital images with the models SEBAL / METRIC for use in hydrological modeling with the SWAT model. For this, we used data from micrometeorological tower of Island Bananal, collected during the experiments the LBA, rainfall and hydrological data. The data used is defined for the period October 2003 to December 2006, in the State Tocantins of catchments river Tocantins- Araguaia of the basin river Lajeado. We observed that the climate in the study area is seasonally well-defined with the rainy season from October to March and the dry are from April to September. Estimates from the models SEBAL / METRIC, varied according to soil type, are consistent with estimates of heat fluxes to the surface. In general, estimates of heat fluxes indicated underestimate of 10% for the period studied. However, seasonally there was an underestimates of 17% in the rainy season and of 35% in the dry season. The results of the hydrologic model can be judged satisfactory by the COE values which vary from 0.57 to 0.84 when comparing the streamflow daily data and from 0.69 to 0.77 with streamflow monthly data, with assimilation of evapotranspiration. This indicates benefits to the model, because was observed an improvement of 0.27 in the COE as daily and of 0.08 as monthly. It was also observed that in percentage terms the streamflow simulated by the SWAT model in the basin river Lajeado after the assimilation of evapotranspiration data showed a reduction error of 13% (overestimation) to 3% (underestimate) to the daily flow and from 9% to 7% (underestimate) to the monthly flow.

Este estudo visa à estimativa dos fluxos de calor à superfície a partir de imagens orbitais, com os modelos SEBAL/METRIC e aplicação na modelagem hidrológica, com o modelo SWAT. Para isso, foram utilizados os dados da torre micrometeorológica da Ilha do Bananal, coletados durante os Experimentos do LBA, e os dados pluviométricos e fluviométricos. Os dados utilizados compreendem o período de outubro de 2003 a dezembro de 2006 da sub-bacia do rio Lajeado, localizada na bacia do rio Tocantins- Araguaia no estado do Tocantins. O clima na área de estudo tem sazonalidade bem definida, com períodos chuvosos de outubro a março e secos de abril a setembro. As estimativas a partir dos modelos SEBAL/METRIC variaram em função do tipo de solo, com estimativas coerentes dos fluxos de calor à superfície. Em geral, as estimativas dos fluxos de calor representam uma subestimativa de 10% para todo o período estudado. No entanto, sazonalmente observou-se subestimativas de 17% no período chuvoso e de 35% no período seco. De maneira geral, os resultados da utilização da evapotranspiração estimada por sensores remotos no modelo SWAT foi satisfatória. A assimilação da evapotranspiração a partir de imagens orbitais resultou em valores de COE que variaram de 0,57 a 0,84 com os dados diários e de 0,69 a 0,77 com os dados mensais de vazão. Isto indica melhoria no ajuste do modelo, devido a uma melhoria de 0,27 de COE no dado diário e de 0,08 no mensal. Observou-se ainda, que em termos percentuais a vazão simulada pelo modelo SWAT na bacia do rio Lajeado, após a assimilação dos dados de evapotranspiração, apresentou uma redução no erro, de 13% (superestimativa) para 3% (subestimativa) na vazão diária e de 9% para 7% (subestimativa) na vazão mensal. / This study presents estimate of the heat flow to the surface from orbital images with the models SEBAL / METRIC for use in hydrological modeling with the SWAT model. For this, we used data from micrometeorological tower of Island Bananal, collected during the experiments the LBA, rainfall and hydrological data. The data used is defined for the period October 2003 to December 2006, in the State Tocantins of catchments river Tocantins- Araguaia of the basin river Lajeado. We observed that the climate in the study area is seasonally well-defined with the rainy season from October to March and the dry are from April to September. Estimates from the models SEBAL / METRIC, varied according to soil type, are consistent with estimates of heat fluxes to the surface. In general, estimates of heat fluxes indicated underestimate of 10% for the period studied. However, seasonally there was an underestimates of 17% in the rainy season and of 35% in the dry season. The results of the hydrologic model can be judged satisfactory by the COE values which vary from 0.57 to 0.84 when comparing the streamflow daily data and from 0.69 to 0.77 with streamflow monthly data, with assimilation of evapotranspiration. This indicates benefits to the model, because was observed an improvement of 0.27 in the COE as daily and of 0.08 as monthly. It was also observed that in percentage terms the streamflow simulated by the SWAT model in the basin river Lajeado after the assimilation of evapotranspiration data showed a reduction error of 13% (overestimation) to 3% (underestimate) to the daily flow and from 9% to 7% (underestimate) to the monthly flow.

Amostras de água de chuva foram coletadas no campus da USP Ribeirão Preto (RP) de agosto de 2002 a dezembro de 2005. Cerca de 84% (n=127) das amostras apresentaram excesso de acidez, com pH médio de 5,12. Não se observou sazonalidade no pH de acordo com o período de safra da cana. As concentrações médias ponderadas pelo volume (MPV, em mol L-1): K+ 3,9 (n=175), Na+ 2,1 (n=172), Ca2+ 5,0 (n=175) e Mg2+ 1,8 (n=168), observadas em RP, bem como seus fluxos de deposição por via úmida, foram ligeiramente mais elevadas que aquelas encontradas em chuvas de regiões com características semelhantes. As concentrações destes cátions foram sazonais, com um aumento no período de safra, sendo que a maior diferença foi observada para o íon K+, indicando a sua importante fonte na queima de biomassa. A sazonalidade do íon Ca2+ aponta para a importância das atividades agrícolas, intensificadas no período de safra, na emissão deste cátion para a atmosfera. Observaram-se boas correlações lineares entre as concentrações de Na+ e K+ (0,67626) e de Na+ e Ca2+ (0,77822), indicando a possibilidade de emissões pirogênicas e a ressuspensão do solo serem fontes de emissão de Na+. A MPV de carbono orgânico dissolvido (COD) encontrada em RP foi mais elevada que na Amazônia, onde também há intensa queima de biomassa, porém seus fluxos por via úmida em ambas as regiões foram similares (0,42 molCm-2ano-1). As concentrações de COD em RP apresentaram correlações lineares significativas com K+ (0,70341) e com Ca2+ (0,61638), apontando para a queima de biomassa e ressuspensão do solo como fontes importantes de emissão de carbono orgânico para a atmosfera. As concentrações de COD nas chuvas de Araraquara foram ainda maiores que em RP, indicando pronunciadas fontes locais naquela cidade. As MPV (nmol L-1) de Cd 0,54 (n=56), Pb 3,02 (n=94) e Cu, 19,9 (n=98), encontradas nas chuvas de RP foram semelhantes a regiões urbanas e industriais do hemisfério norte, enquanto a concentração de Al (448 nmol L-1, n=126) foi menor, e a de Zn (405 nmol L-1, n=120) apresentou-se dentro das faixas de concentrações relatadas nestes locais. Com exceção de Cd, os demais metais analisados (Pb, Cu, Zn e Al) também apresentaram concentrações significativamente maiores (P=0,05) nas chuvas durante o período de safra, indicando que a queima de biomassa e as atividades agrícolas podem aumentar a emissão destes metais para a atmosfera de RP. A correlação linear significativa entre Pb e Ca2+ (0,53845), indica a participação da ressuspensão do solo no aporte atmosférico de Pb em RP, enquanto a ausência de correlação linear entre Zn e K+ (0,20182) parece indicar a presença de outras fontes significativas de Zn para a atmosfera de RP, além da queima de biomassa. O cálculo do fator de enriquecimento demonstra que Cd, Zn, Pb e Cu estão enriquecidos com relação ao solo na chuva de RP, sugerindo que estes podem ter fontes antrópicas locais e / ou distantes. A análise preliminar de componentes principais não esclareceu o peso das diferentes fontes de emissão atribuídas neste trabalho. / Rain water samples were collected based on events at the University of São Paulo - campus Ribeirão Preto - from August 2002 to December 2005. About 84% (n=127) of the samples had excess of acidity, with an average pH of 5.12. There was no correlation between the pH values and the sugar cane harvest period. The Volume Weighed Means (VWM, in mol L-1) for K+ 3.9 (n=175), Na+ 2.1 (n=172), Ca2+ 5.0 (n=175) and Mg2+ 1.8 (n=168), and their wet fluxes in RP were slightly higher than those reported to regions with similar characteristics. The concentrations for these cations were seasonal, with higher values during the harvest period. The largest difference was observed for K+, indicating its important source in the biomass burning activity. The seasonality showed for Ca2+ is probably related to the higher soil resuspension during the more intense agricultural activities. A good linear correlation observed between Na+ and K+ (0.67626) and between Na+ and Ca2+ (0.77822), suggest that Na+ may have important pirogenic as well as soil dust sources. The VWM for Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) in RP was higher than that reported for rainwater in the Amazon region (where the biomass burning is also intense); however, the wet fluxes from both sites were very similar (0.42 mol C m-2 ano-1). DOC concentrations were well correlated with K+ (0.70341) and Ca2+ (0.61638), suggesting that the biomass burning as well as soil dust can be important sources of organic carbon to the atmosphere. DOC concentrations in rainwater from Araraquara were even higher than those for RP, showing a high local source of organic carbon. The VWM (nmol L-1) for Cd 0.54 (n=56), Pb 3.02 (n=94) and Cu 19.9 (n=98) found in the rainwater from RP were similar to urban and industrialized regions of the Northern Hemisphere, while for Al (448 nmol L-1, n=126) it was lower, and for Zn (405 nmol L-1, n=120) the VWM was within the range reported for such areas. Except for Cd, all the other metals measured (Pb, Cu, Zn and Al) also showed higher concentrations (P=0.05) in rainwater samples during the harvest period, suggesting that biomass burning and intensive agricultural activities can increase these species concentrations in the atmosphere. The significant linear correlation between Pb and Ca2+ (0.53845) indicates that soil inputs can be of relevance for Pb atmospheric inputs in RP. On the other hand, the absence of linear correlation between Zn and K+ (0.20182) seems to indicate the presence of other important sources for Zn to the atmosphere besides biomass burning. The calculated Enrichment Factor showed that Cd, Zn, Pb and Cu are anomalously enriched in RP rainwater in relation to soil, suggesting these metals may have antroprogenic local sources as well as distant ones. The preliminary statistical analysis of principal components did not clarify the weight of the different sources of emission attributed in this work.

Accurate simulation of energy, water, and carbon fluxes exchanging between the land surface and the atmosphere is beneficial for improving terrestrial ecohydrological and climate predictions. We systematically assessed the Noah land surface model (LSM) with mutiparameterization options (Noah-MP) in simulating these fluxes and associated variations in terrestrial water storage (TWS) and snow cover fraction (SCF) against various reference products over 18 United States Geological Survey two-digital hydrological unit code regions of the continental United States (CONUS). In general, Noah-MP captures better the observed seasonal and interregional variability of net radiation, SCF, and runoff than other variables. With a dynamic vegetation model, it overestimates gross primary productivity by 40% and evapotranspiration (ET) by 22% over the whole CONUS domain; however, with a prescribed climatology of leaf area index, it greatly improves ET simulation with relative bias dropping to 4%. It accurately simulates regional TWS dynamics in most regions except those with large lakes or severely affected by irrigation and/or impoundments. Incorporating the lake water storage variations into the modeled TWS variations largely reduces the TWS simulation bias more obviously over the Great Lakes with model efficiency increasing from 0.18 to 0.76. Noah-MP simulates runoff well in most regions except an obvious overestimation (underestimation) in the Rio Grande and Lower Colorado (New England). Compared with North American Land Data Assimilation System Phase 2 (NLDAS-2) LSMs, Noah-MP shows a better ability to simulate runoff and a comparable skill in simulating R-n but a worse skill in simulating ET over most regions. This study suggests that future model developments should focus on improving the representations of vegetation dynamics, lake water storage dynamics, and human activities including irrigation and impoundments.

No description available.

Fluids, mainly H2O and CO2, are released from H- and C-bearing phases during prograde metamorphism. Because of the buoyancy of these fluids, they rise within the crust towards the surface of the Earth. Metamorphic fluids take advantage of permeable horizons, shear zones, fold hinges, fractures, and are channelled into high-flux zones. Fluid fluxes for channelized fluid flow may exceed background pervasive fluxes by several orders of magnitude. Metamorphic fluids react with the surrounding rock during fluid flow, and altered zones are commonly observed adjacent to high-flux conduits. Fluid-altered rock is texturally, mineralogically, chemically, and isotopically different from rock unaffected by fluid flow. In this thesis, fluid-rock interaction is studied at two localities in the Scottish Highlands: Glen Esk and the Isle of Islay. Glen Esk is one of the type localities used by George Barrow (1853-1932) to propose the concept of metamorphic zones and metamorphic index minerals as an approximate determination of metamorphic grade. In several of the metamorphic zones in Glen Esk, index mineral distribution is highly dependent on proximity to veins. The occurrence of index minerals is therefore not only controlled by pressure and temperature, but also by the availability of metamorphic fluids. Evidence of a retrograde fluid flow event from the North Esk Fault is observed in Glen Esk, for which a time-averaged fluid flux of 0.0003 – 0.0126 m3∙m-2∙yr-1 is calculated. The duration of the fluid event is estimated to between 16 and 334 kyr. On the Isle of Islay, kyanite is observed in rocks of chlorite or lower-biotite metamorphic grade, i.e. much lower temperatures than usually associated with kyanite formation. The favoured explanation for this is retrograde infiltration of extremely high-CO2 fluids, at least locally XCO2 &gt; 0.7, at ~340°C, which altered these rocks and stabilised kyanite in a carbonate-bearing assemblage. Oxygen and carbon stable isotope profiles across the Islay Anticline reveals highly channelized fluid flow along the axial region of this fold, with fluid:rock ratios at least four times higher than in rock farther away from the fold. Although carbon and oxygen isotope ratios of metacarbonate rocks were altered along the Islay Anticline, negative anomalies observed below and above the Port Askaig Tillite Formation cannot solely be attributed to metamorphic fluid flow, which implies that these rocks to varying degree retain their primary paleoclimatological isotopic signatures. / Stora volymer H2O och CO2 frigörs som fluider under prograd metamorfos. Metamorfa fluider har lägre densitet än det omgivande berget, varför de stiger genom jordskorpan mot jordytan. Metamorfa fluider kanaliseras i permabla lager, skjuvzoner, veckaxlar, sprickor och andra högflödeszoner. Kanaliserade fluidflöden kan vara flera storleksordningar högre än bakgrundsvärdet för fluidflöde inom en bergart. Metamorfa fluider reagerar under transport med det omgivande berget och bildar fluidomvandlade zoner i anslutning till högflödeskanaler. Fluidomvandlat berg uppvisar texturella, mineralogiska, kemiska och isotopsammansättningsmässiga skillnader i jämförelse med berg som inte utsatts för fluidomvandling. I denna avhandling behandlas reaktioner mellan fluid och berg som studerats i två lokaler i de skotska högländerna: Glen Esk och Islay. Glen Esk är en av de typlokaler som George Barrow (1853-1932) använde för att lägga fram konceptet om metamorfa zoner och metamorfa indexmineral som används för att ungefärligt uppskatta metamorf grad. I flera av de metamorfa zonerna är förekomsten av indexmineral i hög grad beroende av närhet till kvartsådror, vilket visar att bildandet av indexmineral inte bara styrs av tryck och temperatur, utan också av åtkomst till metamorfa fluider. I Glen Esk finns också spår av ett fluidflöde från North Esk-förkastningen, under retrograda metamorfa förhållanden, för vilket mededfluidflödet över tid uppgår till 0.0003 – 0.0126 m3∙m-2∙år-1. Denna fluidflödeshändelse beräknas ha pågått mellan 16 000 och 334 000 år. På ön Islay i de sydvästra högländerna återfinns bergarter, som trots sin låga metamorfa grad i klorit- eller biotitzonen innehåller mineralet kyanit, dvs. temperaturer långt under vad som vanligen associeras med kyanitbildning. Detta förklaras med infiltration av fluider med extremt hög CO2-halt, åtminstone lokalt så högt som XCO2 &gt; 0.7, vid ca. 340°C. Fluidomvandling av dessa bergarter stabiliserade kyanit tillsammans med karbonatmineral. Syre- och kolisotopprofiler över Islayantiklinen påvisar hög kanalisering av fluider längs dess veckaxeln. Förhållandet mellan fluid och berg var mer än fyra gånger så högt i närheten av veckaxeln jämfört lokaler längre ifrån densamma. Påverkan av metakarbonatbergarters isotopförhållanden har skett längs Islayantiklinen, men fluidpåverkan kan inte ensamt förklara de isotopanomalier som observerats under och ovan Port Askaig-tilliten, varför dessa bergarter kan ha bibehållit sin primära paleoklimatologiska isotopsignatur. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Submitted. Paper 3: Manuscript.</p>

La connaissance des champs de flux thermique sur les composants d’un tokamak estun élément important de la conception de ce type de machines. L’objectif de cette thèse est dedévelopper et mettre en œuvre une méthode de calcul de ces flux à partir des mesures detempérature par thermographie infrarouge. Ce travail repose sur trois objectifs qui concernentles tokamaks actuels et futurs (ITER) : mesurer un champ de température d'une paroiréfléchissante par pyrométrie photothermique (pré-étude), caractériser les propriétésthermiques des dépôts sur les surfaces des composants et développer un calcultridimensionnel et non-linéaire du flux.Une comparaison de différentes techniques de pyrométries monochromatique,bichromatique et photothermique est effectuée sur une expérience de laboratoire de mesure detempérature. Une sensibilité importante de la technique de pyrométrie photothermique auxgradients de température sur la zone observée a été mise en évidence.Les dépôts en surface des composants exposés au plasma, sans inertie thermique, sontmodélisés par des champs de résistance thermique équivalente transverse. Ce champ derésistance est déterminé, en tout point de mesure, par confrontation du champ de températurede paroi issu de la thermographie avec le résultat d’une simulation par un modèlemonodimensionnel linéaire du composant. Une information sur la répartition spatiale du dépôtà la surface d’un composant est alors obtenue.Un calcul tridimensionnel et non-linéaire du champ de flux pariétal sur un composantest développé, par une méthode d’éléments finis, à partir de maillages de composants issus deCAO. La sensibilité du flux calculé à la précision des mesures de températures est discutée.Cette méthode est appliquée à des campagnes de mesures de températurebidimensionnelles par thermographie infrarouge sur des composants du tokamak JET. Leschamps de flux sur les tuiles du divertor, la protection supérieure et les protections poloïdalesinternes et externes sont déterminés et étudiés dans les deux directions, poloïdale ettoroïdale, du tokamak. La symétrie toroïdale du flux, d’une tuile à l’autre, est établie.L’influence de la résolution spatiale des mesures sur les flux calculés est discutée, à partir decomparaisons de résultats obtenus à partir de deux systèmes de thermographie de résolutionsdifférentes. / Knowing the fields of heat fluxes on the components of a tokamak is a key element todesign these devices. The goal of this thesis is the development of a method of computation ofthose heat loads from measurements of temperature by infrared thermography. The researchwas conducted on three issues arising in current tokamaks but also future ones like ITER: themeasurement of temperature on reflecting walls, the determination of thermal properties fordeposits observed on the surface of tokamak’s components and the development of a threedimensional,non-linear computation of heat loads.A comparison of several means of pyrometry, monochromatic, bichromatic andphotothermal, is performed on an experiment of temperature measurement. We show that thismeasurement is sensitive to temperature gradients on the observed area.Layers resulting from carbon deposition by the plasma on the surface of componentsare modeled through a field of equivalent thermal resistance, without thermal inertia. Thefield of this resistance is determined, for each measurement points, from a comparison ofsurface temperature from infrared thermographs with the result of a simulation, which isbased on a mono-dimensional linear model of components. The spatial distribution of thedeposit on the component surface is obtained.Finally, a three-dimensional and non-linear computation of fields of heat fluxes, basedon a finite element method, is developed here. Exact geometries of the component, releasedfrom CAD’s design, are used. The sensitivity of the computed heat fluxes is discussedregarding the accuracy of the temperature measurements.This computation is applied to two-dimensional temperature measurements of the JETtokamak. Several components of this tokamak are modeled, such as tiles of the divertor, upperlimiter and inner and outer poloïdal limiters. The distribution of heat fluxes on the surface ofthese components is computed and studied along the two main tokamak’s directions, poloidaland toroidal. Toroidal symmetry of the heat loads from one tile to another is shown. Theinfluence of measurements spatial resolution on the calculated heat fluxes is discussed bycomparing results obtained from measurements of two systems of thermography.

Depuis l'ère industrielle, les émissions des gaz à effet de serre, responsables du réchauffement climatique majoritairement d'origine anthropique, ne cessent d'augmenter. Parmi ces gaz, les principaux concernés sont le dioxyde de carbone (CO2), le protoxyde d'azote (N2O) et le méthane (CH4).Dans le cadre de ma thèse, nous allons nous intéresser majoritairement au N2O et aussi au CH4, qui malgré leurs plus faibles quantités dans l'atmosphère, ils ont un potentiel de réchauffement global largement supérieur à celui du CO2.Ces rejets gazeux anthropiques suffisent à provoquer des modifications climatiques à court ou moyen terme. Il est donc nécessaire de comprendre les phénomènes liés à ces émissions. De nombreux réseaux européens tels que Euroflux, CarboEuroflux, NitroEurope, CarboEurope, GHG-Europe et ICOS ont activement contribué à la quantification et la compréhension des émissions des gaz à effet de serre. Il subsiste cependant d'importantes incertitudes sur les bilans inter annuels de ces émissions. Afin de mieux assimiler la variabilité temporelle des émissions de N2O et CH4, il est indispensable de les mesurer continuellement dans le temps en fonction des écosystèmes, des types de sol, et de disposer d'instruments de mesure performants. Le GSMA grâce à ses compétences en instrumentation, a développé un spectromètre utilisant un laser à cascade quantique, QCLAS (Quantum Cascade Laser Absorption Spectrometer), dédié à la mesure in situ de flux de gaz produits par les sols. Comme dans toute expérimentation, les mesures faites par QCLAS peuvent être contaminées de bruits. Ces bruits peuvent entraîner des biais sur les valeurs de flux calculés. C'est la raison pour laquelle on s'intéressera aux méthodes d'analyses des signaux telles que les transformées en ondelettes, la décomposition en valeurs singulières, dont l'utilisation aura pour objectif d'extraire l'information utile des signaux, et permettra d'améliorer significativement le rapport signal à bruit ainsi que la dispersion des mesures. Cette thèse est organisée en trois principales parties : la première est consacrée dans un premier temps aux techniques usuelles de mesure de gaz, où nous introduirons l'instrument QCLAS. On verra ensuite trois techniques usuelles de mesure de flux à savoir : la technique des enceintes closes, l'Eddy corrélation, et le relaxed Eddy accumulation. La seconde partie portera sur les différentes procédures et méthodes de traitement pour l'optimisation de la mesure expérimentale. La dernière partie portera sur les différentes campagnes de mesures réalisées avec QCLAS. Ces applications montreront la robustesse de QCLAS ainsi que son aptitude à effectuer des mesures de terrain. / Since the industrial revolution, emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) responsible for global warming, mainly anthropogenic, continue to increase. Among these gases, the main concerned are carbon dioxide (CO2 ), nitrous oxide (N2O ) and methane (CH4 ).In my thesis, we will focus mainly on N2O and CH4 , which despite their smaller quantities in the atmosphere, have a global warming potential higher than the CO2. These anthropogenic gas emissions are sufficient to cause climatic change in the short or medium term. It is therefore necessary to understand the phenomena linked to these emissions.Many European networks such as Euroflux, CarboEuroflux, NitroEurope, CarboEurope GHG-Europe and ICOS have actively contributed to the understanding and quantification of greenhouse gases emissions. However it remains considerable uncertainty about the inter-annual balance sheets of these emissions. To better assimilate the temporal variability of N2O and CH4 emissions, it is necessary to measure continuously over time in terms of ecosystems, soil types, and to have performance measurement tools. The GSMA with its expertise in instrumentation, has developed a spectrometer using a quantum cascade laser, QCLAS (Quantum Cascade Laser Absorption Spectrometer), designed to measure in situ gas flow produced by the soil. As in any experiment, QCLAS measurements may be contaminated by noise. These noises can cause biases in fluxes determination. This is why we will focus on signal proccessing methods such as wavelet transform, singular value decomposition, with the purpose of extracting useful signal informations and significantly improving the signal to noise ratio and the dispersion of measurements. This thesis is organized in three main parts: The first part is devoted first to conventional techniques for gas measurements, where we will introduce the instrument QCLAS. Then, we will examine three usual techniques of flow measurement namely: the technique of closed chambers, Eddy correlation and relaxed Eddy accumulation. The second part will focus on the different procedures and treatment methods to optimize experimental measurements. The last part will focus on the various measurements campaigns made with QCLAS. These applications demonstrate the robustness of QCLAS as well as its ability to perform field measurements.