This thesis focuses on the challenges that arise from the scheduling of heat exchanger network maintenance problems which undergo fouling and run continuously over time. The original contributions of the current research consist of the development of novel optimisation methodologies for the scheduling of cleaning actions in heat exchanger network problems, the application of the novel solution methodology developed to other general maintenance scheduling problems, the development of a stochastic programming formulation using this optimisation technique and its application to these scheduling problems with parametric uncertainty. The work presented in this thesis can be divided into three areas. To efficiently solve this non-convex heat exchanger network maintenance scheduling problem, new optimisation strategies are developed. The resulting contributions are outlined below. In the first area, a novel methodology is developed for the solution of the heat exchanger network maintenance scheduling problems, which is attributed towards a key discovery in which it is observed that these problems exhibit bang-bang behaviour. This indicates that when integrality on the binary decision variables is relaxed, the solution will tend to either the lower or the upper bound specified, obviating the need for integer programming solution techniques. Therefore, these problems are in ac- tuality optimal control problems. To suitably solve these problems, a feasible path sequential mixed integer optimal control approach is proposed. This methodology is coupled with a simple heuristic approach and applied to a range of heat exchanger network case studies from crude oil refinery preheat trains. The demonstrated meth- odology is shown to be robust, reliable and efficient. In the second area of this thesis, the aforementioned novel technique is applied to the scheduling of the regeneration of membranes in reverse osmosis networks which undergo fouling and are located in desalination plants. The results show that the developed solution methodology can be generalised to other maintenance scheduling problems with decaying performance characteristics. In the third and final area of this thesis, a stochastic programming version of the feasible path mixed integer optimal control problem technique is established. This is based upon a multiple scenario approach and is applied to two heat exchanger network case studies of varying size and complexity. Results show that this methodology runs automatically with ease without any failures in convergence. More importantly due to the significant impact on economics, it is vital that uncertainty in data is taken into account in the heat exchanger network maintenance scheduling problem, as well as other general maintenance scheduling problems when there is a level of uncertainty in parameter values.

Les eaux usées peuvent possiblement être traitées par un système membrane intégré et combinant les procédés de bioréacteur à membrane (BAM) et d’osmose inverse (OI) pour une élimination efficace des micropolluants en vue de la réutilisation des eaux. Cependant, le rejet des concentrats d’OI dans l’environnement pourraient représenter un danger en raison de la toxicité de certains de leurs composés (micropolluants, sels, matières organiques). Une des solutions possibles peut être de recycler le concentrat d’OI vers le BAM. Néanmoins, une étude approfondie s’impose pour une telle configuration car le recyclage mettrait en jeu la recirculation de matière organique non biodégradable, ou de fortes concentrations en sels ou micropolluants, qui pourraient finalement engendrer, directement ou indirectement, un colmatage de la membrane ainsi qu’une modification de l’activité bactérienne dans le BAM. Les effets du recyclage de concentrat d’OI sur les performances de BAM ont été étudiés de deux différentes manières, en distinguant les effets à court-terme (ou court temps de contact) et les effets à long-terme (ou long temps de contact). Les résultats montrent qu’après un temps de contact de 3 heures entre le concentrat et les boues, les concentrations en protéines et polysaccharides dans le surnageant restent inchangées par rapport au début de l’opération. Une analyse HPLC-SEC a permis d’étudier les effets du concentrat d’OI sur la production de matières microbiennes solubles de types protéique. Un pic de concentration en substances protéiques ayant une masse moléculaire de 10 à 100 kDa a été observé dans le surnageant juste après l’addition du concentrat d’OI. Le pouvoir colmatant des boues n’a lui pas été modifié après l’injection du concentrat d’OI. Cette observation ouvre sur la possibilité de développer une opération d’OI comme traitement tertiaire en aval du BAM. La combinaison BAM-OI pourrait donc être une solution envisageable pour traiter le concentrat d’OI. Pour les longs temps de contact, les résultats ont montré que l’impact de l’effluent toxique (concentrat d’OI) sur les boues dépendait du rendement de l’opération d’OI et des caractéristiques du concentrat. Les mêmes tendances ont été observées quelle que soit la composition du concentrat en sels et en matière organique, puisqu’une augmentation de la concentration en protéine a été mise en évidence. L’effet du recyclage du concentrat d’OI a aussi été étudié à différents débits et avec différentes caractéristiques. Les effets sur les performances globales du BAM ainsi que sur son colmatage ont plus particulièrement été investigués. Le taux d’abattement en termes de Demande Chimique en Oxygène (DCO) est, dans tous les cas, supérieur à 93 %, quel que soit le débit de recyclage. Des résultats similaires ont été obtenus en termes de Carbone Organique Dissous. De plus, l’efficacité de la nitrification n’a pas été affectée en présence de concentrat d’OI dans le BAM. L’analyse HPLC-SEC a révélé un pic important de concentration en composés protéiques dans le surnageant, avec des masses moléculaires comprises entre 10 et 100 kDa et entre 100 et 1000 kDa. Par conséquent, une augmentation significative du pouvoir colmatant des boues a été observée et attribuée à la présence de protéines. Par ailleurs, le recyclage du concentrait d’OI n’a pas eu d’effet sur l’élimination de la carbamazépine et du diclofenac dans le BAM. Au contraire, l’élimination du ketoprofene a légèrement baissé, en passant de 94 à 72 %. Enfin, l’effet du recyclage de concentrat d’OI sur la biodégradation a été révélé comme insignifiant, ce qui indique que le recyclage du concentrat d’OI pourrait être une bonne alternative pour réduire les concentrats d’OI et limiter leur rejet dans l’environnement. / Wastewater effluents can be treated by an integrated membrane system combining membrane bioreactors (MBR) and reverse osmosis (RO) for effective removal of micropollutants in the field of high-quality water reuse. However, discharging the RO concentrate waste stream directly into the natural environment could lead to serious problems due to the toxic components contained in the concentrates (micropollutants, salts, organic matter). A possible solution could be the recirculation of RO concentrate waste to the MBR. However, such an operation should be studied in detail since the recirculation of non-biodegradable organic matter or high concentrations of salts and micropollutants could directly or indirectly contribute to MBR membrane fouling and modification of the biodegradation activity. The effects of RO concentrate recirculation on the MBR performances were investigated in two different ways of contact, i.e. short term peak contact and long-term continuous contact at various operating conditions. The results demonstrated that after 3 hours of contact time between the sludge and concentrate, the same values of both protein and polysaccharide concentrations were found in the supernatant, compared to that at the beginning of the reactor. HPLC-SEC analysis was employed to study the effects of RO concentrate on the production of protein-like SMPs. A significant peak of protein-like substances with a molecular size of 10-100 kDa was observed immediately in the supernatant after the addition of RO concentrate. Besides, no significant change was found of the sludge fouling propensity after the injection of RO concentrate into the activated sludge. This finding proposes the opportunities to develop RO process as a tertiary treatment of the membrane bioreactor (MBR), hence, the integrated MBR - RO concept with the RO concentrate recirculation to the MBR might be a solution to treat the concentrate waste stream produced by RO. During the long-term continuous contact, the results demonstrated that the impact of the toxic flow on activated sludge depends on the recovery of the RO step and the characteristics of the concentrate but the same trends were observed whatever the organic matter and salt contents of the concentrates: the concentration of proteins increased. The effects of the reverse osmosis concentrate recirculation, at different flow rates and with different characteristics, to the MBR were investigated. Their impacts on MBR global performances, especially the MBR fouling were evaluated. The removal efficiencies of chemical oxygen demand (COD) at the different flow rates of concentrate were greater than 93%. Similar results for the dissolved organic carbon removal efficiency were found in the MBR. Additionally, the presence of RO concentrate in the MBR did not inhibit the nitrification process. HPLC-SEC analysis employed to study the effects of RO concentrate on the production of protein-like SMPs demonstrated a significant peak of protein-like substances corresponding to 10-100 kDa and 100-1000 kDa molecules in the supernatant. Thus a significant increase of sludge fouling propensity was observed, which could be attributed to the increased quantity of protein-like substances. Furthermore, the recirculation of RO concentrate to the MBR did not significantly affect the removal of carbamazepine and diclofenac in the MBR. Meanwhile, the removal rate of ketoprofen was impacted slightly by the RO concentrate recycling to the MBR (from 94 to 72%). Finally, the effect of the concentrate on sludge activity was studied and no significant effect was observed on biodegradation, indicating that the return of the concentrate to the MBR could be a good alternative for the reduction of concentrate quantities before disposal to the environment.

Deposição é um fenômeno indesejável que ocorre na superfície dos trocadores de calor ao longo de sua operação, ocasionando redução na efetividade térmica e aumento da resistência ao escoamento nestes equipamentos. Estes efeitos trazem grandes consequências econômicas e ambientais, devido ao aumento dos custos operacionais (energia adicional é requerida), aumento dos custos de projeto (demanda por equipamentos de maior área de troca térmica), limitações hidráulicas (que pode levar a uma diminuição da carga processada) e aumento das emissões (aumento da queima de combustíveis fósseis para suprir a energia adicional requerida). Neste contexto, o presente trabalho tem por objetivo fornecer ferramentas computacionais robustas que apliquem técnicas de otimização para o gerenciamento da deposição em redes de trocadores de calor, visando minimizar os seus efeitos negativos. Estas ferramentas foram desenvolvidas utilizando programação matemática no ambiente computacional GAMS, e três abordagens distintas para a resolução do problema da deposição foram pesquisadas. Uma delas consiste na identificação do conjunto ótimo de trocadores de calor a serem limpos durante uma parada para manutenção da planta, visando restaurar a carga térmica nesses equipamentos através da remoção dos depósitos existentes. Já as duas outras abordagens consistem em otimizar a distribuição das vazões das correntes ao longo de ramais paralelos, uma de forma estacionária e a outra de forma dinâmica, visando maximizar a recuperação de energia ao longo da rede. O desempenho destas três abordagens é ilustrado através de um conjunto de exemplos de redes de trocadores de calor, onde os ganhos reais obtidos com estas ferramentas de otimização desenvolvidas são demonstrados / Fouling is an undesirable phenomenon that occurs over the surface of heat exchangers during its operation, causing reduction of thermal effectiveness and increase of flow resistance along these equipment. These effects bring large economics and environmental consequences, due to the increase of operational costs (additional energy is required), increase of project costs (demand of equipment with larger thermal exchange areas), hydraulic limitations (that can diminish the process throughput) and increase of emissions (increase of fossil fuel firing to supply the additional energy required). In this context, the objective of this work is to provide robust computational tools that apply optimization techniques for fouling management on heat exchanger networks, aiming to reduce its negative effects. These tools were developed using mathematical programming on GAMS software, and three distinct approaches for the resolution of the fouling problem were investigated. One of them consists in the identification of the optimal set of heat exchangers that have to be cleaned during a plant maintenance shutdown, aiming to restore the thermal load in these equipment through the removal of the existent deposits. The other approaches consist in to optimize the distribution of flow rates of the streams along parallel branches, using stationary and dynamic models, in order to maximize the energy recovery in the network. The performance of these three approaches is illustrated through examples of heat exchanger networks, where the real gains obtained with these optimization tools are demonstrated

A proposta desta pesquisa consistiu na avaliação da microfiltração tangencial para o tratamento avançado de efluente gerado em sistema de tratamento de esgoto sanitário constituído de reator UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket) seguido de tanque de aeração. Neste trabalho foram avaliados métodos de limpeza física (retrolavagem com ar comprimido) e química (ácida e básica) das membranas, bem como análise comparativa da colmatação e do desempenho de membranas de tamanhos de poro de 0,2 e 1,0 'mü'm, quando aplicadas ao pós-tratamento de efluentes do tanque de aeração em diferentes concentrações de SST. Foram contemplados ainda estudos de desinfecção de efluentes da microfiltração por radiação UV e aplicação do processo de coagulação antecedendo a microfiltração tangencial. Os experimentos foram realizados em unidade piloto com membranas tubulares de polipropileno com área efetiva de filtração de 0,036 'M POT.2'. Constatou-se que a limpeza física foi essencial para obtenção de maiores valores de fluxo de permeado na unidade de microfiltração. A limpeza química das membranas por solução básica foi mais eficiente quando comparada a limpeza ácida. Foram obtidos melhores resultados com a membrana de 0,2 'mü'm, quando comparada a membrana de 1 'mü'm, a qual apresentou intensa colmatação interna de seus poros. Para membrana de 0,2 'mü'm obteve-se permeado de excelente qualidade microbiológica (E.Coli < 1 UFC/100 mL e Colifagos < 16 UFP/100 mL), bem como valores de turbidez inferiores a 1,46 uT e remoção praticamente completa de SST. A prévia coagulação das amostras de licor misto do tanque de aeração contribuiu para obtenção de maiores taxas e melhor remoção de P-'PO IND.4'POT.3-' e DQOt na unidade de microfiltração. Para dosagem de 40 mg/L de cloreto férrico obteve-se a maior taxa média (139,7 L/'M POT.2'.h), concentrações residuais de P-'PO IND.4'POT.3-' inferiores a 1,4 mgP/L e DQOt menor que 33 mg/L. A radiação UV permitiu inativação completa de E.Coli e Colifagos das amostras de permeado. Concluiu-se que a microfiltração tangencial apresentou grande potencialidade para ser aplicada no tratamento avançado de efluente gerado em sistema de tratamento de esgoto sanitário constituído de reator UASB (Upflow Anerobic Sludge Blanket) seguido de tanque de aeração. / The proposal of this research was to evaluate the crossflow microfiltration as an alternative for an advanced treatment of effluent generated in a system of sewage treatment composed by a UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket) reactor followed by an aeration tank. This work aimed to evaluate the membranes physical cleaning methods (backwashing with compressed air) and the chemical ones (acid and basic), as well as the comparative analysis between the fouling event and the 0,2 and 1,0 'mü'm pore size membranes performance, when applied to the aeration tank effluents in a post-treatment stage at TSS different concentrations. Studies for microfiltration effluents disinfection by UV radiation and the application of the coagulation process preceding the crossflow microfiltration were also developed. The experiments were performed in a pilot unit with polypropylene tubular membranes with 0.036 'M POT.2' of effective filtration area. It was verified that the physical cleaning was essential to the attainment of higher permeate flux values in the microfiltration unit. The chemical cleaning of the membranes through basic solution was more efficient when compared to their acid cleaning. Better results were attained when the 0,2 'mü'm membrane was employed in comparison with the 1 'mü'm membrane, which presented intense internal blocking of its pores. It was attained an excellent microbiological quality (E.Coli < 1 FCU/100 mL and Coliphages < 16 FPU/100 mL) for the 0,2 'mü'm membrane, as well as turbidity levels under 1,46 uT and almost total removal of TSS. The previous mixed liquor samples coagulation of the aeration tank contributed to the attainment of higher rates and better removal of P-'PO IND.4'POT.3-' and CODt in the microfiltration unit. It was attained, for the ferric chloride 40 mg/L dosage, the higher mean rate (139,7 L/'M POT.2'.h), P-'PO IND.4'POT.3-' remaining concentrations under 1,4 mgP/L and CODt lesser than 33 mg/L. The UV radiation allowed the complete inactivation of E.Coli and Coliphages from the permeate samples. It was concluded that the crossflow microfiltration presents great possibilities of application in the advanced treatment of effluent generated in a system of sewage treatment composed by a UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket) reactor followed by an aeration tank.

Malgré leur fort développement en assainissement domestique urbain, les bioréacteurs à membranes (BaM) pâtissent de phénomènes de colmatage, induisant des coûts énergétiques et de maintenance importants. L’aération séquencée des membranes par des grosses bulles est l’une des stratégies pour limiter le colmatage ; son impact a fait l’objet de plusieurs études mais reste globalement mal compris, notamment du fait de la complexité de ces systèmes, multiphasiques et opaques. L’hydrodynamique des réacteurs reste mal caractérisée en présence de boues. Pour apporter des éléments de compréhension aux mécanismes de limitation du colmatage par injection d’air, un pilote de filtration membranaire semi-industriel (2 m3, 3 sous modules fibres creuses Puron®) a été conçu, dimensionné et installé sur l’unité de traitement des jus (TDJ) de la station d’épuration Seine Aval (SIAAP), afin d’être alimenté en boues biologiques dans des conditions réelles de fonctionnement. Le suivi des paramètres opératoires du pilote et de ses performances de filtration sur une période de 5 mois avait un double objectif : (i) mieux caractériser la dispersion du gaz pour différentes conditions de fonctionnement (paramètres de l’aération, concentration en boues de l’alimentation), (ii) hiérarchiser les facteurs qui limitent le colmatage des membranes. Il s’agit in fine de proposer des stratégies d’aération adaptées et efficaces pour limiter le colmatage. Afin de caractériser la dispersion du gaz dans le réacteur, une méthodologie innovante basée sur la tomographie de résistivité électrique (ERT) a été adaptée au pilote. Les conditions d’utilisation de l’ERT (nombre d’électrodes de mesure, séquence de quadripôles) ont été sélectionnées à travers une étude numérique, de même que les paramètres d’inversion nécessaires pour reconstituer la cartographie des résistivités à partir des mesures expérimentales. Cette étude numérique poussée, réalisée sous COMSOL, a permis de conclure à l’intérêt de la méthode pour représenter la distribution des phases dans la géométrie considérée. L’ERT a donc été appliquée au pilote alimenté en boues, pour différentes conditions d’aération. Le jeu de données de filtration a par ailleurs été analysé par logique floue, à l’aide du logiciel FisPro. Les arbres de décision obtenus, en analysant les résultats de manière globale et en les regroupant par conditions opératoires similaires, ont mis en évidence l’impact prépondérant des variables suivantes sur la dérive de perméabilité observée (comprise entre - 9 et 2 LMH/bar) : la différence de DCO entre le surnageant des boues et le perméat (DDCO) traduisant une phase colloïdale complexe, et la concentration en matières en suspension (MES), ayant toutes deux un impact négatif sur les performances de filtration. Une augmentation du débit d’air conduirait à une limitation de la dérive de perméabilité, sauf lorsque la variable DCO est élevée (> à 500 mg/L), cette hypothèse restant cependant à vérifier sur une base de données plus conséquente. Le modèle ainsi obtenu par logique floue permet de mieux simuler les évolutions de perméabilité que les modèles obtenus par régression linéaire multivariée (erreurs de 0,61 et de 0,70 respectivement), et ce malgré une incertitude relative importante sur la mesure de perméabilité (jusqu’à 16 %). Ces résultats sont cohérents avec la dispersion du gaz observée par ERT : son homogénéité dépend de la concentration en MES et du débit d’air injecté. A forte concentration en MES (6 – 10 g/L), des zones préférentielles de passage des bulles ont été observées, en particulier à faible débit d’air, expliquant ainsi un colmatage plus important. L’utilisation nouvelle dans ce contexte de ces techniques, ERT et logique floue, donne des résultats qui confortent l’intérêt d’adapter l’aération (débit, séquençage) aux caractéristiques des boues notamment leurs concentrations, et qui permettent d’envisager des stratégies de contrôle de ces paramètres / Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) are widely used in the wastewater treatment sector. However, membrane fouling mitigation remains challenging, and leads to important maintenance and energy costs. Several strategies have been developed industrially to enhance MBR productivity, including coarse bubble sequenced aeration for fouling mitigation. The way such aeration participates in sludge hydrodynamic patterns is an important research topic. However, the methods currently used for hydrodynamic characterisation suffer from several drawbacks, mainly due to the system’s complexity (three phases with opaque deformable solids). More research is needed to characterize hydrodynamics in MBRs filled with activated sludge. A semi-industrial reactor (2.0 m3) was designed and equipped with three hollow fiber membrane modules (KMS Puron) to contribute to fill this knowledge gap. The reactor was continuously fed with activated sludge from one of the reactors of the Seine Aval (SIAAP) wastewater treatment plant. Operating parameters, activated sludge properties as well as process performances were monitored for five months with two objectives: (i) to characterize gas dispersion for different operating conditions (aeration strategy, activated sludge concentrations), (ii) to rank activated sludge properties and operating conditions, according to their impact on fouling mitigation. The ultimate goal is to propose adapted aeration strategies allowing sustainable filtration performance. In order to characterize the gas dispersion in a complex geometry such as MBR membrane tanks, an innovative approach based on electrical resistivity tomography was adapted to the pilot conditions. A numerical approach was used to define the experimental design in terms of electrode positions, quadripole sequences but also inversion parameters, used to reconstruct resistivity maps from experimental datasets. This numerical study, performed on COMSOL, demonstrated the ability of the ERT method to observe different patterns in the membrane zone. ERT was therefore applied to characterise bubble dispersion in the semi-industrial membrane bioreactor filled with activated sludge and operated using different aeration conditions. The dataset obtained from filtration monitoring was analysed using fuzzy logic. The resulting fuzzy decision trees, constructed from the whole dataset or from subsets clustering similar operating conditions, pointed out the impact on the permeability evolution of two main factors: the COD difference between activated sludge supernatant and permeate (COD), standing for complex colloidal phase, and Mixed Liquor Suspended Solid (MLSS) concentration. Both variables emphasizing fouling at high values. Also, an air flow rate augmentation seemed to mitigate fouling, except at high COD concentrations (> 500 mg/L), where its impact was reversed. This last observation needs further investigation, on a larger dataset. The model obtained from fuzzy logic allows a better simulation of permeability evolutions compared to multivariate linear regression (errors of 0.61 and 0.70, respectively), despite a relatively high measurement uncertainty of permeability (up to 16 %). Those results are consistent with the gas dispersion observed with ERT measurements: homogeneity of gas dispersion depends on MLSS concentration and air flow rate. At high concentrations of MLSS (6 g/L and 10 g/L), a high air flow rate is required for the bubbles to be distributed on the whole membrane zone and preferential flow paths have been observed, especially at low air flow rate. This gas dispersion heterogeneity explains worsened filtration performance. In this context, the new use of these technics, ERT and fuzzy logic, provided results that reinforce the interest to link aeration parameters to sludge properties, their MLSS concentration in particular, leading to consider control strategies for these operating parameters.

Coastal anthropogenic infrastructure has significantly modified nearshore environments. Because these structures often have a strong association with shipping as would be found in ports and harbors, they have been identified as invasion hotspots. Due to propagule pressure from shipping and recreational boating and suitable uncolonized substrate that provides a refuge from native predators, a greater number of non-native species have been found on these structures compared to nearby natural substrate. The mechanisms that limit the spread of non-native species from anthropogenic structures to natural substrate have been explored for several taxa at a species-specific level, but less so from an overall community perspective. Predation has been identified as one of the biotic interactions limiting invasion success. In addition to predation, dispersal ability may also prevent the spread of non-native species from anthropogenic structures to natural substrate. This thesis addresses how these two mechanisms interact to limit the spread of non-native species from anthropogenic structures to natural substrate and how that alters overall community composition. I aimed to explore differences between communities inside and outside of a marina and determine the extent to which predator and dispersal limitation were structuring these communities. I used a three-factor design, deploying seven unglazed ceramic tiles per each treatment combination of 1) inside versus outside a marina in Yaquina Bay, Oregon; 2) cage keeping out predators greater than the mesh size, no cage, or partial cage; 3) fixed near the substrata (benthic) versus suspended 1 meter below the surface. I also transplanted caged, suspended tiles of either adults or recruits from inside the marina to benthic and suspended caging treatments outside of the marina. These tiles allowed me to examine predation when dispersal limitation was not a factor for the community inside the marina, i.e. what happens to both recruits and adults if they can get outside of the marina. I found that the communities inside and outside of the marina were different and the data suggest that both predation and dispersal limitation interact to limit the spread of non-native species. Additionally, I found that mesopredators that could fit through the caging may be influencing predation results and community structure. This research addresses gaps in scientific knowledge regarding the mechanisms that prevent or facilitate the spread of non-native species. Future work could include the further exploration of mesopredation as an important factor in limiting the spread of non-native species and exploring dispersal limitation more in depth as well as broadening the geographic scope to see if the same trends hold true across bays and bioregions.

Securing water in the right quantities at the right quality for the right price is a major issue around the world. Membranes are making an increasingly important contribution to meeting this need; however their performance is limited by fouling. This thesis reports on an investigation into the fouling of systems related to water treatment using the Direct Observation Through the Membrane (DOTM). The investigation focused on the measurement of critical flux and observation of particle behaviour under a variety of conditions and for a number of different particles. The range of meanings attributed to critical flux in the literature was analysed and several proposals made for the improved use of the concept. In particular, critical flux determination techniques were classified by whether they measure resistance changes or particle deposition; leading to the definition of Critical Resistance and Critical Deposition Fluxes. In this thesis the deposition definition is used exclusively. The effect of Reynolds number and spacer orientation on critical flux was correlated for spacer-filled channels. The heterogeneous deposition patterns observed with regions of heavy deposition next to areas of little or no deposition. This pattern was related to the local hydrodynamics of spacer cells (a few mm2 in size). The correlations developed for critical flux in spacer-filled channels were adjusted for submicron particle size and incorporated into a SpiralWound Module (SWM) leaf model and then used to simulate the fouling of SWM leaves under a range of operating conditions and operating policies. The Mass Balance technique of critical flux determination was also briefly assessed. The applicability of critical flux criteria to SWM arrays was discussed. Fouling, particle behaviour and critical flux were also investigated in air-sparged systems. The post-cleaning water flux was found to be enhanced when the membrane is fouled in the presence of bubbles. The rate of flux decline was reduced by bubbles. Critical flux increased with air flowrate, and decreased with increased liquid flowrate and concentration. Bubbles caused particles to periodically deposit on the membrane. Particles were observed to stream past the membrane under the influence of back-diffusive forces. Video clips of particulate fouling are provided.

Delisea pulchra is a red macroalga that produces furanones, a class of secondary metabolites that inhibit the growth and colonization of a range of micro- and macroorganisms. In bacteria, furanones specifically inhibit acyl homoserine lactone (AHL)- driven quorum sensing, which is known to regulate a variety of colonization and virulence traits. This thesis aims to unveil multiple aspects of the chemically mediated interactions between an alga and its bacterial flora. It was demonstrated that the quorum sensing genetic machinery of bacteria is laterally transferred, making traditional 16S rRNA gene based-diversity techniques poorly suited to identify quorum sensing species. Previous studies had shown that AHL-producing bacteria belonging to the roseobacter clade can be readily isolated from D. pulchra. Because of this, it was decided to use a roseobacter epiphytic isolate from this alga, Ruegeria strain R11, to conduct a series of colonization experiments on furanone free and furanone producing D. pulchra. Furanones were shown to inhibit Ruegeria strain R11's colonization and infection of D. pulchra. In addition, it was demonstrated that Ruegeria strain R11 has temperature-regulated virulence, similar to what is seen for the coral pathogen Vibrio shiloi. Rising ocean temperatures may explain bleached D. pulchra specimens recently observed at Bare Island, Australia. To assess whether quorum sensing is common within the roseobacter clade, cultured isolates from the Roseobacter, Ruegeria and Roseovarius genera were screened for AHL production. Half of the bacteria screened produced the quorum sensing signal molecules, AHLs. These AHLs were identified using an overlay of an AHL reporter strain in conjunction with thin layer chromatography (TLC). The prevalence of quorum sensing within the roseobacter clade, suggests that these species may occupy marine niches where cellular density is high (such as surface associated communities on substratum and marine eukaryotes). Diversity studies in marine microbial communities require appropriate molecular markers. The 16S rRNA gene is the most commonly used marker for molecular microbial ecology studies. However, it has several limitations and shortcomings, to which attention has been drawn here. The rpoB gene is an alternate ???housekeeping??? gene used in molecular microbial ecology. Therefore, the phylogenetic properties of these two genes were compared. At most taxonomic levels the 16S rRNA and rpoB genes offer similar phylogenetic resolution. However, the 16S rRNA gene is unable to resolve relationships between strains at the subspecies level. This lack of resolving power is shown here to be a consequence of intragenomic heterogeneity.

Fouling of heat treatment equipment in the dairy processing industry is an expensive and persistent problem. The objective of this work was to develop a better understanding of the mechanisms of dairy fouling in heat exchangers and identify methods to control this build-up. This was part of a larger project investigating the interaction between spore-forming thermophilic bacilli (thermophiles) contamination and fouling deposits on internal surfaces of equipment. Two systems were developed to monitor the onset and build-up of fouling on the internal surfaces of two research heat exchangers. The first used a commercial sensor to measure the local heat flux and the temperature on the hot side of a plate type heat exchanger. The heat transfer coefficient was calculated and normalised with its value at the start of the run to reflect the contribution of fouling deposits to the thermal resistance, thus giving a real-time estimate of the rate of fouling. The second system used an energy balance over a tubular type heat exchanger and measured inlet and outlet temperatures to estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient thus giving a global measurement of fouling over the tubular heat exchanger. In both systems the plot of normalised heat transfer coefficient over time often stayed constant over an induction period, which was followed by a falling period indicative of growth in the fouling layer thickness and/or mass. Each system was validated by comparing the final value of the normalised heat transfer coefficient with direct measurements of fouling made at the end of a run namely: fouling deposit height for the local measurement and fouling deposit mass for the global measurement. The normalised heat transfer coefficient reported by each system correlated well with the corresponding direct measurement of the fouling layer. An important factor identified in this study was the effect of air bubble nucleation on fouling deposits. It was shown that bubbles that formed on the heated surface greatly reduced the length of the induction period to a matter of seconds rather than hours, as found in previous studies of fouling in the absence of surface bubbles. The rate of fouling was also enhanced while the bubbles remained at the surface. The structure of bubble type fouling layers was linked to the behaviour of the bubbles at the heated surface. Visual observations of these bubbles showed evidence of growth, vibration and coalescence during their period of attachment to the heated surface. Deposits from bubble type fouling consisted of all solid components found in the original milk solution, except lactose, in approximately the same ratio. By contrast fouling deposits reported in the literature with systems operating under the traditional protein denaturation mechanism were reported to consist mainly of whey proteins. Bubble induced fouling can be limited in a number of ways, the most effective being to maintain a high operating pressure in the equipment to ensure nucleation does not occur. Experiments conducted in this study showed that a pressure of 130 kPa.g was sufficient to suppress all bubble nucleation at the heated surface at a temperature of 90°C. Another method identified was the use of high linear fluid velocities to entrain any surface bubbles into the processing stream immediately upon nucleation. Linear velocities above 1.0 m/s were shown to achieve this goal in the miniature plate heat exchanger tested. However, this method is only partially successful because the local linear velocity varies with position in heat exchange equipment of complex geometries and can drop below the mainstream average velocity causing surface bubbles to form, especially in recirculation regions behind flow obstacles. A more reliable method, in situations where high operating pressures could not be used, involved conditioning the heated surface with a thin protein layer during the first few minutes of a run. Conditioning the surface resulted in bubble suppression even at high temperatures and low pressures, thus greatly extending the length of the induction period. Trials performed in this study showed that the addition of a proteolytic enzyme produced by psychrotrophic microbes greatly increased fouling. The enzyme destabilised the caseins which could attach directly to the heat exchange surface independently from the bubble fouling mechanism. Thus the quality of the milk is another important factor to consider. However, the addition of enzymes produced by thermophilic bacilli isolated from milk powder plants did not increase fouling. A theory describing the air bubble induced fouling mechanism is presented along with recommendations on how to reduce this fouling contamination in processing equipment.

This dissertation investigates the influence of surface heterogeneities on colloid deposition. First, deposition of colloidal particles on a nanofiltration membrane during cross flow membrane filtration was studied under different operating pressures and solution chemistries. An atomic force microscope (AFM) was then used to observe the deposit morphology formed on the membrane. At the initial stages of fouling, more particles preferentially accumulate near the peaks than in the valleys of the rough nanofiltration membrane surface. This study demonstrates that it is difficult to isolate, correlate and assess the effects that physical (roughness) heterogeneity and chemical heterogeneity has on colloid deposition based on experiments involving surfaces where the physical and chemical heterogeneities are uncorrelated or randomly distributed. In the second phase of the study, the deposition of model colloidal particles onto patterned charge-heterogeneous surfaces was studied both experimentally and theoretically. Controlled charge heterogeneity was created experimentally employing self assembled monolayers of alkanethiols patterned onto gold substrates using a soft lithographic technique. Model colloidal particles and fluorescent nanoparticles were sequentially deposited onto the patterned substrate under no flow (quiescent) conditions, and the deposited structures and the micro-patterns were imaged in situ using a combination of phase contrast and fluorescence microscopy. This study indicates that particles tend to preferentially deposit at the edges of the chemically favourable stripes. The theoretical investigation involved the formulation of a mathematical model based on Random Sequential Adsorption (RSA). This study showed that a simple binary probability distribution assumed in the model is able to predict the experimental deposit morphology adequately, particularly the periodicity of the underlying patterns on the substrate. Furthermore, the effect of charge heterogeneity on the electrostatic double layer interaction between a particle and a charge heterogeneous planar surface was studied numerically employing a 3D finite element model. In this system, significant lateral forces at close separation distances were observed, and found to be appreciably higher when the particle is near the edge of a heterogeneous region of the substrate. From the above studies, it can be concluded that by altering/controlling the chemical heterogeneity of the substrate, it is possible to achieve significant control on the resulting deposit morphology.