Epigenetic differences between maternally inherited and paternally inherited chromosomes, such as CpG methylation, render the maternal and paternal genome functionally inequivalent, a phenomenon called genomic imprinting. This functional inequivalence is exemplified with imprinted genes, whose expression is parent-of-origin specific. The dosage of imprinted gene expression is disrupted in cells with uniparental disomy (UPD), which is an unequal parental contribution to the genome. I have derived mouse embryonic stem (ES) cell sub-lines with maternal UPD (mUPD) for mouse chromosome 6 (MMU6) to characterize regulation and maintenance of imprinted gene expression. The main finding from this study is that maintenance of imprinting in mitotic UPD is extremely variable. Imprint maintenance was shown to vary from gene to gene, and to vary between ES cell lines depending on the mechanism of loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in that cell line. Certain genes analyzed, such as Peg10, Sgce, Peg1, and Mit1 showed abnormal expression in ES cell lines for which they were mUPD. These abnormal expression levels are similar to that observed in ES cells with meiotically-derived full genome mUPD (parthenogenetic ES cells). Imprinted CpG methylation at the Peg1 promoter was found to be abnormal in all sub-lines with mUPD for Peg1. Two cell sub-lines which incurred LOH through mitotic recombination showed hypermethylation of Peg1, consistent with the presence of two maternal alleles. Surprisingly, a cell sub-line which incurred LOH through full chromosome duplication/loss showed hypomethylation of Peg1. The levels of methylation observed in these sub-lines correlates with expression, as the first two sub-lines showed a near-consistent reduction of Peg1, while the latter showed Peg1 levels close to wild-type. Altogether these results suggest that certain imprinted genes, like Peg1 and Peg10, have stricter imprinting maintenance, and as a result show abnormal expression in UPD. This strict imprint maintenance is disrupted, however, in UPD incurred through full chromosome duplication/loss, possibly because of the trisomic intermediate stage which occurs in this mechanism.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Florida, 2004. / Typescript. Title from title page of source document. Document formatted into pages; contains 141 pages. Includes Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Florida, 2004. / Typescript. Title from title page of source document. Document formatted into pages; contains 148 pages. Includes Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

A epigenética aborda o controle da expressão gênica através de diversos fatores que agem sob a cromatina, os melhor estudados são a metilação do DNA e a acetilação em histonas, relacionadas à repressão e ativação gênica, respectivamente. Em mamíferos, existem dois fenômenos epigenéticos interessantes: a inativação do cromossomo X (ICX) em fêmeas, que garante o equilíbrio transcricional gênico entre os sexos, e o imprinting genômico, caracterizado pela expressão monoalélica dependente da origem parental. No presente estudo, propusemos verificar a manutenção do controle epigenético em células humanas normais e transformadas em condições semelhantes de hipometilação do DNA e hiperacetilação em histonas (após uso das drogas 5-aza-2-\'deoxicitidina (5-aza-dC) e ácido valproico, respectivamente), através do monitoramento da expressão alelo-específica pelo uso de polimorfismos de única base presentes em regiões codificadoras. Em células normais houve manutenção da ICX e do imprinting genômico, enquanto que em células transformadas hipometiladas foram observadas indução de XIST, e perda de imprinting dos genes IGF2, H19 e PEG10. Observamos que ambas as drogas podem diminuir a expressão de DNMT1, e 5-aza-dC altera o equilíbrio entre acetilação e desacetilação da histona H4. Ainda, a ordem de adição dos reagentes ocasionou diferenças no nível de acetilação da histona H4 e na expressão gênica de XIST e PEG10. Nossos dados sugerem que: células humanas normais apresentam maior estabilidade do controle epigenético comparadas às células humanas transformadas, genes submetidos à ICX e \"imprintados\" não apresentam diferenças na rigidez do controle de expressão, e a cascata de reação seguida após perturbação de marcas epigenéticas pode ser alterada dependendo da modificação inicial. / Epigenetics refers to mechanisms related to gene activity through conformational modifications in DNA without changes in the nucleotide sequence. Key players in the epigenetic control are DNA methylation and histone acetylation, which are related to gene activation and repression, respectively. Two striking epigenetic phenomena in mammalians are X chromosome inactivation (XCI) and genomic imprinting. XCI triggers the transcriptional silencing of all but one X chromosome in each female cell, while genomic imprinting is a process that leads to mono-allelic gene expression based on parental origin. In the present study, we intended to verify the maintenance of epigenetic control in normal and transformed human cells under the same conditions of epigenetic disturbance. For this purpose, 5-aza-2\'-deoxycytidine (5-aza-dC) and valproic acid (VPA) were used to cause DNA hypomethylation and histone hyperacetylation, respectively. By monitoring allelic-specific expression using single nucleotide polymorphisms present in coding regions, we were able to check the effects of the modifications in the expression pattern of imprinted or subjected to XCI genes. While in female normal cells XCI and genomic imprinting were not affected by VPA or 5-aza-dC treatments, transformed male cells showed XIST activation and loss of imprinting of PEG10, IGF2 and H19 genes in the hypomethylation scenario. In addition, both drugs can decrease the expression of DNMT1, and 5-aza-dC alters the balance between acetylation and deacethylation of histone H4. Furthermore, we could see different degrees of histone H4 acetylation levels and of XIST and PEG10 expression, depending on which of the drugs was added first. Our data suggest that the epigenetic control in normal human cells is more stable when compared to transformed human cells. In addition, both XCI and genomic imprinting are epigenetic features equally hard to disturb. Finally, depending on the initial epigenetic modification (global demethylation or acethylation), it will induce different epigenetic control networks, with consequence to the final status of gene expression.

A síndrome de Silver-Russell (SRS) é caracterizada principalmente por grave retardo de crescimento intrauterino e pós-natal e face típica, pequena e triangular, entre outras características variáveis. A SRS é geneticamente heterogênea, ocorrendo em geral de forma esporádica. Mutações genéticas e epigenéticas em regiões sujeitas a imprinting genômico nos cromossomos 7 e 11 são detectadas em cerca de 50% dos pacientes. Mais frequentemente, a SRS é causada pela alteração da expressão gênica na região 11p15 devido à hipometilação do centro de imprinting telomérico (ICR1) que ocorre em pelo menos 40% dos afetados. Duplicações cromossômicas de origem materna incluindo o centro de imprinting centromérico (ICR2) estão presentes em 1-2% dos casos. A dissomia uniparental materna do cromossomo 7 (matUPD7) é responsável por 5-10% dos casos. Mais recentemente microdeleções e microduplicações cromossômicas foram detectadas em um grupo pequeno de pacientes, algumas delas se mostrando com possível efeito patogênico. Com a identificação da hipometilação de ICR1 em 11p15, matUPD(7) e desequilíbrios (sub)microscópicos, a confirmação molecular para o diagnóstico clínico da SRS tornou-se possível em ~50% dos pacientes, o que deixa metade dos casos sem causa genética determinada. A amostra foi constituída por 64 pacientes brasileiros não aparentados, com suspeita clínica da síndrome de Silver-Russell. O número de cópias de DNA e o padrão de metilação do cromossomo 11p15 foram investigados em 49 pacientes utilizando MS-MLPA, e 21 (43%) deles apresentaram hipometilação de ICR1. Em um desses pacientes (2%), ambos os centros, ICR1 e ICR2, estavam hipometilados, alteração complexa que já foi relatada em ~4% dos pacientes com SRS que apresentavam hipometilação de ICR1. Em outro paciente (2%), foi detectada uma microduplicação de origem materna que incluía o domínio ICR2, mas não ICR1. Essa microduplicação segrega em três gerações de uma família e a manifestação da síndrome depende da transmissão via materna: houve quatro casos de transmissões paternas da microduplicação de um único homem uniformemente resultando em prole normal, e cinco transmissões maternas, de duas irmãs clinicamente normais, com todas as crianças apresentando SRS. Outra microduplicação de origem materna restrita ao domínio ICR2 e associada com SRS em um menino foi descrita anteriormente. Entre os genes duplicados nos dois casos, CDKN1C aparece como candidato para o fenótipo da SRS, uma vez que codifica para um inibidor de quinase dependente de ciclina que regula negativamente o crescimento celular e tem papel crucial no desenvolvimento fetal humano. Esse novo caso familial vem confirmar que a duplicação restrita ao domínio ICR2, de herança materna, está causalmente associada com a SRS; mostra também que nenhuma alteração fenotípica aparente está presente, quando a duplicação é herdada via paterna. Entre os 64 pacientes da amostra, três (4,7%) foram identificados apresentando matUPD(7), pela genotipagem de microssatélites do cromossomo 7. As frequências de hipometilação de ICR1 (43%) e matUPD(7) (4,7%) entre os nossos pacientes, concordantes com o de outros estudos semelhantes, apontam para a seleção adequada dos pacientes com SRS, do ponto de vista clínico. A investigação de microrrearranjos cromossômicos por a-CGH foi realizada em 19 pacientes, que previamente tiveram afastadas alterações (epi)genéticas em 11p15 e a matUPD(7). A maioria dos pacientes não apresentou alterações (n=7) ou possuía apenas CNV frequentes em indivíduos normais da população e consideradas polimorfismos (n=8). Quatro microdeleções potencialmente patogênicas foram detectadas, em 2p23.3 (~320 Kb), 13q24 (~94,3 Kb), 15q11.2 (~320 Kb) e 16p13.11 (~95,8 Kb). Em nenhum dos casos foi possível estabelecer relação direta com o fenótipo da SRS, porque não foi possível investigar ambos os genitores ou a alteração estava presente em um genitor clinicamente normal ou já tinha sido relatada em indivíduo normal da população, não havendo, entretanto, indicação de ser polimórfica. A penetrância incompleta ou a manifestação de alelo recessivo patogênico no cromossomo homólogo são duas possíveis explicações para o efeito patogênico das microdeleções herdadas de genitor clinicamente normal. Três estudos recentes que utilizaram microarrays na busca de genes ou regiões cromossômicas associadas com a SRS, em que a causa genética era desconhecida, detectaram microduplicações e microdeleções, algumas potencialmente patogênicas: uma microdeleção em 15q26.3, incluindo o gene IGF1R, foi identificada em dois pacientes; outras microdeleções incluíam os genes IGF2BP3 em 7p15, GPC5 em 13q31.3, o MAPK1 em 22q11.2 e o HMGA2 em 12q14, considerados candidatos, possivelmente influenciando o crescimento. Esse conjunto de resultados indica que a investigação de microrrearranjos deve estender-se a um número maior de pacientes com SRS, na busca regiões cromossômicas e genes que possam estar causalmente associados com a síndrome. Em 30 pacientes com SRS, buscamos mutações no gene CDKAL1, por sequenciamento direto das regiões codificadoras. Esse gene foi considerado candidato para a síndrome, após ter sido interrompido em um dos nossos pacientes com SRS, portador de uma translocação t(5;6). Nenhuma alteração patogênica foi detectada, indicando que mutações de ponto na região codificadora do gene CDKAL1 não é causa comum da SRS. Em 18 dos 30 pacientes, investigamos a presença de microdeleções e microduplicações por a-CGH e não encontramos alteração que incluísse esse gene. Considerando o pequeno tamanho amostral, não podemos excluir definitivamente a possibilidade de que alterações no gene CDKAL1 possam contribuir para a etiologia da SRS. / Silver Russell syndrome (SRS) is characterized by severe intrauterine and postnatal growth retardation in association with a typical small triangular face and other variable features. Most cases are sporadic. Genetic and epigenetic disturbances on imprinted regions at chromosomes 7 and 11 are detected in about 50% of the patients. Most frequently, SRS is caused by altered gene expression on chromosome 11p15 due to hypomethylation of the telomeric imprinting center (ICR1) that is present in at least 40% of the patients. Maternally inherited duplications encompassing the centromic imprinting center (ICR2) domains at 11p15 are present in about 1-2% of cases. Maternal uniparental disomy of chromosome 7 (mUPD7) is identified in 5-10% of patients. More recently, chromosomal microdeletions and microduplications were detected in a small group of SRS patients, some of them with possible pathogenic effect. This leaves approximately half of the SRS cases without a genetic cause determined. Our cohort consisted of 64 unrelated Brazilian patients with clinical diagnosis of SRS. DNA copy number changes and the methylation pattern on chromosome 11p15 were investigated in 49 patients by MS-MLPA, and 21 (43%) presented with hypomethylation of ICR1. In one patient (2%), both centers (ICR1 and ICR2) were hypomethylated, a complex alteration that has been reported in ~4% of SRS patients that shows hypomethylation of ICR1. In a further patient (2%), we detected a ~1.6 Mb microduplication encompassing the whole ICR2 domain, but not the ICR1. This microduplication was shown to segregate in a three-generation family, and was associated with SRS whenever maternally transmitted: there were four instances of paternal transmissions of the microduplication from a single male uniformly resulting in normal offspring, and five maternal transmissions, via two clinically normal sisters, with all the children exhibiting SRS. A maternally inherited microduplication also restricted to the ICR2 domain and associated with SRS in a boy was described previously. Among the duplicated genes in both cases, CDKN1C is a likely candidate for the SRS phenotype, because it encodes a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor that negatively regulates cell proliferation and growth, and plays a crucial role in human fetal development. This new case brings confirmatory evidence that microduplications restricted to the ICR2 domain result in SRS when maternally transmitted. It also shows that no apparent phenotypic change is present when ICR2 duplication is paternally inherited. By genotyping chromosome 7 microsatellites, we identified three patients (4.7%) with mUPD(7), in the cohort of 64 patients. The frequencies of hypomethylation of ICR1 (43%) and mUPD(7) (4.7%) among our patients are in accordance with the literature, and point to a proper selection of patients with SRS, from the clinical point of view. The investigation of submicroscopic chromosomal imbalances by a-CGH was performed in 19 patients in whom (epi)genetic mutations at 11p15 and mUPD(7) had been excluded. Most patients showed no changes (n = 7) or had only CNV considered to be polymorphic (n = 8). Four potentially pathogenic microdeletions were detected, on chomosomes 2p23.3 (~320 Kb), 13q24 (~94.3 Kb), 15q11.2 (~320 Kb) and 16p13.11 (~95.8 Kb). In neither case we could establish a direct relationship between the imbalance and the phenotype, because it was not possible to investigate both parents or the change was present in a clinically normal parent or it had been reported in normal individuals, without, however, indication of being polymorphic. Incomplete penetrance or unmasking of a pathogenic recessive allele on the homologous chromosome are two possible explanations to the pathogenic effect of a microdeletion inherited from a clinically normal parent. Three recent studies that used microarrays to identify genes or chromosomal regions associated with SRS, wherein the genetic cause was unknown, detected microdeletions and microduplications, some of them potentially pathogenic: a microdeletion at 15q26.3, including the IGF1R gene, was identified in two patients; other microdeletions included the IGF2BP3 gene at 7p15, GPC5 gene at 13q31.3, MAPK1 gene at 22q11.2 and HMGA2 gene at 12q14, which were considered candidates, possibly influencing growth. This set of results, including ours, indicates that the investigation of submicroscopic chromosomal imbalances should be extended to a larger cohort of SRS patients, in the search for chromosomal regions and genes that may be causally associated with the syndrome. In 30 SRS patients, we searched for point mutations in the CDKAL1 gene by direct sequencing of coding regions. This gene was considered a candidate for SRS, after being disrupted in one of our SRS patients with a t(5;6). No pathogenic mutation was detected and, therefore, point mutations in the coding region of CDKAL1 do not appear to be a common cause of SRS. In 18 of the 30 patients, we investigated the presence of microdeletions and microduplications by a-CGH and found no changes encompassing CDKAL1 gene. Considering the small cohort size, we cannot definitely exclude the possibility that changes in CDKAL1 gene may contribute to the etiology of SRS.

Epigenética é o ramo da biologia que estuda as características herdáveis não associadas a alterações na seqüência de nucleotídeos do DNA. Um dos principais processos epigenético estudados é a metilação do DNA, a qual está associada a diversos mecanismos de regulação gênica, entre eles o imprinting (marcação) genômico. Esse tipo de regulação caracteriza-se pela expressão parental específica dos loci associados e à metilação diferencial em regiões regulatórias conhecidas como centros de imprinting (ICs). Alterações desse mecanismo estão relacionadas com síndromes de hipo e hipercrescimento em humanos e animais domésticos, desenvolvimento de tumores, doenças associadas com alterações de comportamento e já foram detectadas em indivíduos concebidos por técnicas de reprodução assistida e em células-tronco embrionárias derivadas de diferentes espécies. Essas duas últimas evidenciam que genes marcados são particularmente lábeis ao estresse induzido por manipulação celular in vitro. As possíveis causas dessas epimutações não estão completamente esclarecidas. Os bovinos parecem ser um melhor modelo comparativo no estudo dessas alterações, evitando a utilização de embriões humanos. No entanto, existem poucas seqüências descritas de genes marcados nessa espécie. No presente estudo, duas regiões diferencialmente metiladas (H19DMR e KvDMR1) foram caracterizadas em bovinos em termos de elementos conservados (EC), enriquecimento de elementos repetitivos (ERs) e padrões de metilação. A análise de ECs e ERs foi realizada utilizandose os programas VISTA e RepeatMasker, respectivamente. Os padrões de metilação para ambas as DMRs foram analisados utilizando-se o ensaio de COBRA (do inglês COmbined Bisulfite Restriction Analysis) em DNA de sangue periférico e espermatozóides em amostras de animais concebidos in vivo. Também foi pesquisada a possível ocorrência de perda de imprinting em uma amostra de quatro animais clonados. A análise dos resultados indicou que os padrões de imprinting observados nas DMRs bovinas estudadas são semelhantes aos descritos para regiões homólogas em outras espécies de mamíferos. As características genômicas mostraram uma maior similaridade nas regiões analisadas entre bovinos e humanos do que entre humanos e camundongos. Não foram encontradas diferenças entre o padrão de imprinting de animais gerados naturalmente ou por transferência nuclear. Os resultados desse trabalho poderão auxiliar em futuras pesquisas de genes marcados em bovinos, além de contribuir para o melhoramento na utilização dessa espécie como modelo de comparação para desenvolvimento humano. / Epigenetics is the branch of biology which studies heritable changes in genome function that occur without a change in nucleotide sequence within the DNA. One of the most studied epigenetic process is the DNA methylation, which is associated with several gene regulation mechanisms such as genomic imprinting. This type of regulation is characterized by parental specific gene expression and differential methylation of the associated loci in regulatory sequences named imprinting centers (ICs). Alterations of this mechanism has been related to hypo and hypergrowth syndromes in humans and domestic animals, tumor development, behavior disorders, and it has also been associated with epimutations in individuals conceived by assisted reproduction (AR) techniques and stem cells derived from different species. These last two evidences are indicatives of the imprinted genes lability to in vitro cell manipulation. The possible causes of these epimutations are not completely clear. Cattle seem to be a better comparative model in the study of this epigenetic alterations, and it can avoid the use of human embryos. However, there is few description of imprinted gene sequences this species. In the present work, two differently methylated regions (H19DMR and KvDMR1) were characterized in terms of conserved elements (CEs), enrichment of repetitive elements (RE) and methylation patterns. The CEs and REs analysis was carried out using the VISTA and RepeatMasker softwares, respectively. The methylation patterns for both DMRs were analyzed by COBRA (COmbined Bisulfite Restriction Analysis) assay in DNA from peripherical blood and sperm samples of in vivo conceived animals. It also was investigated the loss of imprinting in samples of four cloned animals. The results indicated that the imprinting patterns of the studied bovine DMRs are similar to the other homologue regions in mammals. The genomic features demonstrated a bigger similarity of the analyzed regions between cattle and humans than between humans and mice. Differences between the imprinting patterns of in vivo conceived versus cloned animals were not found. The results of this work can help future studies of imprinted genes in cattle, and, in addition, can contribute for the improvements of this animal model as a comparative to the human development.

O imprinting genômico, processo regulado epigeneticamente segundo o qual os genes se expressam de acordo com sua origem parental, está envolvido no crescimento e desenvolvimento placentário. Na região 11p15.5 encontram-se vários genes regulados por duas regiões controladoras de imprinting (ICR1 e ICR2), onde se encontram as regiões diferencialmente metiladas H19DMR e KvDMR1. Acredita-se que o padrão de imprinting seja dinamicamente regulado durante o desenvolvimento da placenta. Em humanos, há poucas informações sobre imprinting genômico e desenvolvimento placentário, principalmente para estágios precoces do desenvolvimento devido às dificuldades técnicas de obtenção dessas placentas. A descrição de mosaicismo do padrão de metilação restrito a placenta ou entre a placenta e o feto evidencia um perfil epigenético único deste órgão. A 5-hidroximetilação, a qual não tem um papel de silenciamento gênico, pode ser confundida com a metilação do DNA nas análises moleculares. O objetivo principal do presente estudo foi o de verificar a influência da idade gestacional (IG) no perfil de metilação do DNA das ICRs 1 e 2 em vilosidade coriônica, bem como a existência de mosaicismo do perfil de metilação intra-placentário. Neste trabalho também foi investigada a presença de hidroximetilação na KvDMR1. Foram coletadas amostras de tecido placentário, sendo 25 de vilosidades coriônicas (VC) (15 de 3° trimestre gestacional e 10 do 1° trimestre) e nove de cordão umbilical (UC) de 1° trimestre (pareadas com a VC). Quatro placentas de 3° trimestre foram analisadas em separado para o estudo de mosaicismo. O perfil de metilação do DNA das regiões foi verificado por PCR Específica para a Metilação (MS-PCR), Análise Combinada de Bissulfito e Restrição Enzimática (COBRA) e Método de Digestão Enzimática Sensível à Metilação Associada à PCR em Tempo Real (DESM-RT), além do ensaio para hidroximetilação na KvDMR1. Com os ensaios qualitativos (MS-PCR e COBRA) foi observado um perfil de metilação monoalélico, sendo que na H19DMR foi identificada a presença de CpGs diferentemente metilados. Para a H19DMR foram observadas médias de 0,43 de metilação em VC e 0,31 em UC de 1° trimestre, e de 0,41 em VC de 3° trimestre. Para a KvDMR1, foram encontradas médias de 0,47 em VC e 0,57 em UC de 1° trimestre, e de 0,41 em VC de 3° trimestre. A presença de hidroximetilação na KvDMR1 foi excluída. Não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre as médias das diferentes IGs ou entre tecidos pelos testes t e F para ambas as regiões. Não foi observada correlação positiva no perfil de metilação para H19DMR e KvDMR1 entre os tecidos. Em relação ao mosaicismo, não houve diferenças significativas no perfil de metilação entre os diferentes cotilédones amostrados numa mesma placenta. Os resultados demonstram uma discordância entre tecido embrionário (UC) e extraembrionário (VC). Apesar de não serem observadas alterações significantes nos perfis de metilação da H19DMR e KvDMR1 em diferentes IGs, as informações apresentadas são importantes para as pesquisas sobre a dinâmica do fenômeno de imprinting genômico ao longo da gestação, para os estudos de mosaicismo intraplacentário bem como o perfil epigenético da placenta em relação a outros tecidos. / Genomic imprinting, an epigenetically regulated process by which genes are expressed accordingly to their parental origin, is involved in placental growth and development. In 11p15.5 region, there are many genes regulated by two Imprinting Control Regions (ICR1 and ICR2), in which are found two Differentially Methylated Regions, H19DMR and KvDMR1, respectively. Imprinting patterns seem to be adjusted during placenta development. In humans, there is little information on genomic imprinting and placental development, especially for early stages of development due to technical difficulties in obtaining these placentas. The description of mosaicism in methylation pattern restricted to placenta or between placenta and fetus shows a unique epigenetic profile of this organ. The 5-hidroxymethylation, which has no role in gene silencing, can be confused with DNA methylation in molecular analysis. The main aim of our study was to verify the influence of gestational age (GA) in DNA methylation profile of ICRs 1 and 2 in chorionic villi, as well as the existence of intra-placental methylation profile mosaicism. The presence of hydroximethylation in the KvDMR1 was also investigated. Samples were collected from placentas, 25 from chorionic villi (CV) (15 of the 3rd gestational trimester and 10 of the 1st trimester) and nine from umbilical cord (UC) in 1st trimester (paired with the CV samples). Four 3rd trimester placentas were separately analyzed for mosaicism. DNA methylation profile was verified by Methylation Specific PCR (MS-PCR), and Combined Bisulfite Restriction Analysis (COBRA) and Methylation-Sensitive Enzyme Digestion Method associated with Real-Time PCR (DESM-RT), in addition to hydroximethylation test in the KvDMR1 region. With qualitative assays (MS-PCR and COBRA), it was observed a monoallelic methylation pattern, and, only for the H19DMR, differently methylated CpGs were observed. For the H19DMR, we observed methylation means of 0.43 in CV and 0.31 in UC of 1st trimester, and 0.41 in CV of 3rd trimester. For KvDMR1, we observed means of 0.47 in CV and 0.57 in UC of 1st trimester, and 0.41 in CV of 3rd trimester. No hydroximethylation in the KvDMR1 was observed. There were no significant differences between the means of different GAs or between tissues by F and t tests for both regions. No positive correlation was found on methylation profile for H19DMR and KvDMR1 between tissues. In relation to mosaicism, there were no significant differences in methylation profile between different cotyledons sampled in the same placenta. The results showed a discrepancy between embryonic (UC) and extra-embryonic (CV) tissues. Although it was not observed significant changes in methylation profiles of H19DMR and KvDMR1 in different GAs, the presented results are important to research on dynamics of genomic imprinting phenomenon during pregnancy, studies of intra-placental mosaicism and placenta epigenetic profile in relation to other tissues.

Le domaine Dlk1-Dio3 est l’un des rares domaines imprimés contrôlés par une région de contrôle d'impression méthylée sur le chromosome paternel, nommée IG-DMR. Dans l’embryon, au niveau du domaine Dlk1, Rtl1 et Dio3 les gènes codant pour des protéines sont exprimés à partir du chromosome paternel, tandis que les ARNs non-codants dont Meg3, les snoRNAs à boite C/D et les micro-ARNs sont exprimés à partir du chromosome maternel.Il a été montré que la copie maternelle de l'IG-DMR est nécessaire pour l'expression des gènes imprimés de ce domaine et que les ARNs de types enhancer (de la même région) activent la transcription des ARNs non-codants. Cependant, les mécanismes qui régulent l'expression imprimée de gènes codant pour des protéines restent indéterminés. Dans ce projet, nous avons cherché à élucider les mécanismes qui contrôlent l'expression spécifiquement paternelle des gènes codant pour des protéines ainsi que le rôle possible des ARNs non-codants dans ce processus.Pour nos études alléliques, nous avons utilisé des cellules ES hybrides qui ont été obtenues en croisant des lignées de M. musculus domesticus et M. musculus molossinus. Ces cellules ont été différenciées in vitro dans des lignées neurales. Dans les cellules ES, l'expression Dlk1 est détectée à partir des deux chromosomes parentaux à des niveaux très bas. Lors de la différenciation, l'allèle paternel de Dlk1 devient actif tandis que le niveau d'expression de l'allèle maternel reste faible. Nos études de la chromatine ont montré que cette surexpression est due à l’activation de la chromatine sur l'allèle paternel de Dlk1.L'un de nos objectifs était d'explorer le rôle de Meg3 (un long ARN non-codant) dans la régulation de l’empreinte de Dlk1. A cet effet, nous avons généré des cellules souches embryonnaires déficientes en Meg3. Dans toutes les lignées déficientes, de suppressions maternelles ou bi-alléliques, nous avons constaté une perte d’expression de tous les ANRs non-codants. De plus, l’expression de Dlk1 devient bi-allélique dans ces cellules. Pour élucider le mécanisme de l'empreinte de ce gène, nous avons décidé d'étudier les caractéristiques de la chromatine au niveau du promoteur Dlk1 dans les cellules déficientes en Meg3. Nous avons examiné les modifications activatrices et répressives des histones ainsi que l'occupation de l'ARN Pol II. Nous avons observé l'acquisition des marques d’une chromatine active sur les deux chromosomes ainsi que le recrutement bi-allélique de l'ARN Pol II.Bien que nous n’ayons pas pu détecter une perte de la marque répressive H3K27me3 suite à la surexpression de Dlk1, nous avons observé un gain d'acétylation sur ce résidu lysine. Afin de comprendre davantage le rôle de la marque H3K27me3 sur l’empreinte de Dlk1, nous avons généré des cellules ES dépourvues de EZH2, la méthyltransférase de H3K27. L’expression de Dlk1 dans les cellules différenciées dépourvues de H3K27me3 est bi-allélique.Enfin, ces données suggèrent que l'expression des ARNs non-codant empêche l'activation de Dlk1 sur le chromosome maternel via l’activité de EZH2 au cours du développement. / The Dlk1-Dio3 imprinted domain is one of the few imprinted domains that are controlled by a paternally methylated imprinting control region, IG-DMR. Protein-coding genes of the domain, Dlk1, Rtl1 and Dio3 are expressed from the paternal chromosome, and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) including Meg3, C/D box snoRNAs and microRNAs are expressed from the maternal chromosome exclusively in the embryo. Maternal copy of the IG-DMR is required for the imprinted gene expression at this domain. Enhancer RNAs transcribed from this region are involved in activation of ncRNA expression on the maternal chromosome. However, the regulation of imprinted expression of protein-coding genes remains unknown. In this project, we aimed to elucidate the mechanisms controlling the paternal specific expression of protein-coding genes and a possible role of ncRNAs in this process.For our allelic studies, we made use of hybrid ES cells that were obtained by crossing M. musculus domesticus and M. musculus molossinus strains. These cells were differentiated in vitro into neural lineages. In ES cells, Dlk1 expression is detected from both parental chromosomes at very low levels. Upon differentiation, paternal allele of Dlk1 gets activated while low level of expression is detected from maternal allele. Our chromatin studies showed that this upregulation is through the acquisition of active chromatin on the paternal allele of Dlk1.One of our aims was to explore the role of Meg3 long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) in the regulation of Dlk1 imprinting. For this purpose, we generated ES cells deficient in Meg3. In all maternal or biallelic deletion lines, we observed complete loss of all ncRNA expression. Interestingly, in these cells Dlk1 expression becomes biallelic. To elucidate the mechanism of imprinting of this gene, we set out to study the chromatin features at the Dlk1 promoter in Meg3 deficient cells. We looked into active and repressive histone modifications and RNA Pol II occupancy. We observed acquisition of active chromatin marks on both chromosomes as well as biallelic recruitment of RNA Pol II.Although we could not detect a loss of repressive mark H3K27me3 upon Dlk1 upregulation on the paternal allele, we observed gain of acetylation on this lysine residue. To further investigate the role of H3K27me3 mark on Dlk1 imprinting, we generated ES cells that lack functional EZH2, the H3K27 methyltransferase. Dlk1 is biallelically expressed in the differentiated cells that are devoid of H3K27me3.Combined, these data suggest a model in which non-coding RNA expression prevents the developmental activation of Dlk1 on the maternal chromosome by a process that also requires the activity of EZH2.

Chez les mammifères, l'empreinte génomique parentale est un mécanisme épigénétique restreignant l'expression d'une centaine de gènes à un seul allèle, déterminé selon son origine parentale. Les gènes affectés et les mécanismes sous-jacents à leur expression mono-allélique sont essentiellement déterminés par une marque épigénétique différentielle portés par les allèles maternel et paternel. D'un point de vue fonctionnel et au niveau physiologique, l'empreinte est actuellement comprise comme un mécanisme contrôlant la quantité de ressources attribuées par la mère à sa progéniture. Les gènes soumis à empreinte s'inscrivent dans un même réseau transcriptionnel (IGN), et plusieurs études indiquent qu'ils contrôleraient l'équilibre entre prolifération et quiescence de cellules souches adultes. A travers cette étude, nous montrons une induction coordonnée de la plupart des gènes soumis à empreinte lors de la sortie du cycle cellulaire, que celle-ci soit réversible (quiescence) ou non (différenciation). De plus, dans un modèle de pré-adipocytes 3T3-L1, la perturbation de la dynamique d'expression de plusieurs de ces gènes semble conforter l'hypothèse d'un contrôle des transitions entre différents états cellulaires (prolifération, quiescence et différenciation) par l'IGN. Outre l'identification d'une fonction cellulaire commune aux gènes soumis à empreinte, nos résultats ouvrent la voie d'une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes de régulation de la quiescence. De plus, nos conclusions permettent de suggérer un nouveau scénario pour la sélection de l'empreinte parentale au cours de l'évolution des mammifères. / Mammalian genomic imprinting is an epigenetic mechanism that restrains the expression of about a hundred genes to a single allele, in a parent-of-origin specific manner. The identity of imprinted genes and the molecular basis of their monoallelic expression mostly rely on a differential epigenetic marking of the parental alleles. Presently, imprinting is understood as a mechanism aimed at controlling the amount of maternal resources allocated to the offspring. Imprinted genes belong to the same transcriptional network (IGN) and, according to different reports, they seem to control the balance between proliferation and quiescence of adult stem cells. In this study, we show that most imprinted genes are induced upon cell cycle exit, whether reversible (quiescence) or not (differentiation). In addition, within the 3T3-L1 preadipocytes cell line, impairing the dynamics of expression of several imprinted genes impairs the transitions between different cellular states, namely proliferation, quiescence and differentiation. Our results highlight the existence of a common cellular function of imprinted genes, and provide a new frame to understand cellular quiescence, at a molecular level. Furthermore, they suggest a new plausible scenario for the implementation of genomic imprinting during mammalian evolution.

Epigenetic differences between maternally inherited and paternally inherited chromosomes, such as CpG methylation, render the maternal and paternal genome functionally inequivalent, a phenomenon called genomic imprinting. This functional inequivalence is exemplified with imprinted genes, whose expression is parent-of-origin specific. The dosage of imprinted gene expression is disrupted in cells with uniparental disomy (UPD), which is an unequal parental contribution to the genome. I have derived mouse embryonic stem (ES) cell sub-lines with maternal UPD (mUPD) for mouse chromosome 6 (MMU6) to characterize regulation and maintenance of imprinted gene expression. The main finding from this study is that maintenance of imprinting in mitotic UPD is extremely variable. Imprint maintenance was shown to vary from gene to gene, and to vary between ES cell lines depending on the mechanism of loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in that cell line. Certain genes analyzed, such as Peg10, Sgce, Peg1, and Mit1 showed abnormal expression in ES cell lines for which they were mUPD. These abnormal expression levels are similar to that observed in ES cells with meiotically-derived full genome mUPD (parthenogenetic ES cells). Imprinted CpG methylation at the Peg1 promoter was found to be abnormal in all sub-lines with mUPD for Peg1. Two cell sub-lines which incurred LOH through mitotic recombination showed hypermethylation of Peg1, consistent with the presence of two maternal alleles. Surprisingly, a cell sub-line which incurred LOH through full chromosome duplication/loss showed hypomethylation of Peg1. The levels of methylation observed in these sub-lines correlates with expression, as the first two sub-lines showed a near-consistent reduction of Peg1, while the latter showed Peg1 levels close to wild-type. Altogether these results suggest that certain imprinted genes, like Peg1 and Peg10, have stricter imprinting maintenance, and as a result show abnormal expression in UPD. This strict imprint maintenance is disrupted, however, in UPD incurred through full chromosome duplication/loss, possibly because of the trisomic intermediate stage which occurs in this mechanism. / Medicine, Faculty of / Medical Genetics, Department of / Graduate