Ice sheets and mountain glaciers are critically important components of Earth'sclimate system due to societal and ecological risks associated with sea-level change, ocean freshening, ice-albedo feedback, glacial outburst floods, and freshwater availability. As Earth warms, increasing volumes of surface meltwater will access subglacial environments, potentially lubricating the base of the ice sheets and causing enhanced ice discharge into the ocean. Since subglacial water is effectively hidden beneath the ice, the primary ways to study subglacial hydrological systems are through mathematical modelling and interpreting indirect observations. Glaciers often host subglacial or ice-dammed lakes that respond to changes in subglacial water flow, thereby providing indirect information about the evolution of subglacial hydrological systems. While monitoring subaerial ice-dammed lakes is straightforward, the evolution of subglacial lakes must be inferred from the displacement of the overlying ice surface, posing additional challenges in modelling and interpretation. This dissertation addresses these challenges by developing and analyzing a series of mathematical models that focus on relating subglacial hydrology with observable quantities such as lake level or ice-surface elevation. The dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 demonstrates how ageneralization of Nye's (1976) canonical model for subglacial water flow admits a wide class of solitary-wave solutions---localized regions of excess fluid that travel downstream with constant speed and permanent form---when melting at the ice-water interface is negligible. Solitary wave solutions are proven to exist for a wide range of material parameter values that are shown to influence the wave speed and wave profile. Melting at the ice-water interface is shown to cause growth and acceleration of the waves. To relate dynamics like these to observable quantities, Chapter 2 focuses on modelling water-volume oscillations in ice-dammed lakes during outburst flood cycles while accounting for the potential influence of neighboring lakes. Hydraulic connection between neighboring lakes is shown to produce a wide variety of new lake-level oscillations that depend primarily on the relative sizes and proximity of the lakes. In particular, the model produces lake-level time series that mirror ice-elevation changes above a well-known system of Antarctic subglacial lakes beneath the Whillans and Mercer ice streams even though the modelled ice-dammed lakes are not buried beneath the ice. The stability of lake systems with respect to variations in meltwater input is characterized by a transition from oscillatory to steady drainage at high water supply. To create a framework for extending these models of ice-dammed lakes to thesubglacial setting, variational methods for simulating the dynamics of subglacial lakes and subglacial shorelines are derived in Chapter 3. By realizing a direct analogy with the classical Signorini problem from elasticity theory, this chapter also furnishes a new, rigorous computational method for simulating the migration of oceanic subglacial shorelines, which are strongly tied to ice-sheet stability in response to climatic forcings. In Chapter 4, this newly developed model is used to highlight the challenge of accurately interpreting ice-surface elevation changes above subglacial lakes without relying on ice-flow models. The surface expression of subglacial lake activity is shown to depend strongly on the effects of viscous ice flow and basal drag, causing altimetry-derived estimates of subglacial lake size, water-volume change, and apparent highstand or lowstand timing to deviate considerably from their true values under many realistic conditions. To address this challenge, Chapter 5 introduces inverse methods for inferring time-varying subglacial lake activity or basal drag perturbations from altimetry data while accounting for the effects of viscous ice flow. Incorporating horizontal surface velocity data as additional constraints in the inversion is shown to facilitate reconstruction of multiple parameter fields or refinement of altimetry-based estimates. In sum, this dissertation constitutes several novel approaches to understanding ice-water interaction beneath glaciers while laying the foundation for future work seeking to elucidate the role of subglacial processes in the changing climate.

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From the moment a snowflake touches down on the surface of a glacier, it begins a process of transformation. Fresh snow, made up of single-grained snowflakes is compacted into glacial ice by the weight of subsequent snowfall and by sintering, grain boundary sliding and diffusion. At first, snow grains accommodate the stress through mechanical failure and by changing their shapes and positions. Fragile, dendritic structures on the edges of snowflakes break off, and grains round into lower free energy configurations. Rounded grains slip into air pockets. As time passes, increasing overburden of a load to bear, and it is, for a single snowflake. But it is precisely this stress that creates a glacier. Stress, in this case, is a catalyst for transformation. But don't worry. I am not going to make an overly forced metaphor for what happens during a doctorate program.} Pressure causes the grains to merge, large grains absorbing small ones. As ice grains squeeze and grow into all the available pore space, grains trap air bubbles and cut them off from the atmosphere, preserving records of climate conditions. Eventually, these processes densify the snow so thoroughly that it metamorphoses into glacial ice, and from a crumbly collection of snowflakes emerges a cohesive crystalline matrix. This process, firn densification, is the subject of my first chapter. From measurements of englacial strain rates by repeat phase-sensitive radar deployments, we show it is possible to extract densification rates that match modeled predictions. The formation of ice is just the beginning of the story of a glacier. As and after ice forms, gravity pulls on the body of the glacier; ice flows under its own weight, becoming a viscous river that meanders from high elevations toward the sea level. Along the way, various other forces act on the ice (e.g., friction at the ice-bed causes ice to shear, narrowing valley walls create compressive stresses, etc.). This history can be written into the ice in the orientation and configuration of its molecular structure. Ice is made of a regular crystal matrix of water molecules. Covalently bonded oxygen and hydrogen molecules assemble into sheets of hexagons, held to each other by hydrogen bonds. The relative orientation of these hexagonal sheets is called the "ice fabric”, and its importance lies in the fact that ice’s asymmetric molecular structure gives rise to asymmetric properties. For example, ice is softer—more deformable—when stress is applied parallel to the hexagonal planes, like playing cards sliding over one another. Over hundreds or thousands of years, this asymmetric response to stress causes the hexagonal planes to rotate so that they lie perpendicular to the direction of compressive stress. This, in turn, changes which relative direction a glacier is the “softest”. In short, the history of the glacier is written into its fabric. Ice remembers the stress it has undergone, and that memory changes its resistance to (or accommodation of) stress in the present and future. In chapter two, I use an autonomous phase-sensitive radar to measure the ice fabric along a central transect of Thwaites Glacier. Thwaites drains ice from West Antarctica and is one of the fastest changing glaciers on the continent. Locked up in Thwaites is at least half a meter of sea level rise, as well as much of the buttressing that holds back WAIS. Measurements of the fabric of Thwaites tell us about the history of stress undergone by the glacier, as well as any change in relative direction of the "softest" ice. As a glaciologist, I have dedicated my life to studying how glaciers form, flow, and disappear. As an artist and writer, I am interested in material memory, with a particular orientation toward ice itself and in the way the language and mathematics used to describe ice mimic processes that happen in body, mind, and society. My fourth chapter is centered on the creative research and art produced during my dissertation, particularly focused on a visual autoethnography of my body I created during my first field season in Antarctica in 2022-2023. In it, I try to grapple with whether/how, even as positivist science demands I remove as much of myself as possible from my scientific research, my body/myself show up in small ways in my data. I consider how ice's response to stress—to soften or harden, to flow or crack—is in many ways, a mirror for how we as humans respond to stress. Other work in Chapter 4 was created in direct response to the beauty of glaciated landscapes and the grief I struggle to manage in response to their rapid change. Biome I is a short zine that uses faux-color satellite imagery overlain with text and meshes of glaciers from Grand Teton National Park (GRTE). In 2021, I spent six months as a Scientists-in-Parks fellow through AmeriCorps, joining the park's physical science team in Wyoming to expand their glacier monitoring program. From this work emerged Chapter 3 a history of glacial change in the park over the last 70 years from in situ and remotely sensed observations. This work, while quite different from my previous scientific output, allowed me to learn and explore other glaciological techniques as well as template methodologies and provide information that is immediately useful for education and action in GRTE and other rapidly deglaciating landscapes. Much of the way I have come to understand glacial geophysics is by considering the ways they connect more broadly to our lived experiences. In the Tetons, this involved understanding how deglaciation affects the park's ecological systems and the evolving safety for visitors given the changing ice conditions. In pursuit of both expanding my own understanding and hoping to share with others the joy and beauty of the study of ice, I have developed numerous education efforts to make the study of glaciers, climate, and the earth physical, tangible, less abstract, emotional, joyful, and intuitive. Chapter 5 concludes the thesis by taking a step back to look at education and teaching, the thread that has carried through my doctorate, from prior to starting graduate school and, I hope, that will continue long after. I discuss the influences of teacher-philosophers like Shannon Mattern, Lynda Barry, and bell hooks, who have all, in their own way, striven to reshape the (idea of the) classroom into forms that better serve the learner. This work has taken place on the seat of a bicycle riding across the country, on an icefield in Juneau, Alaska, and in my own backyard, in classrooms across New York City. To conclude, I hope this thesis is not only a scientific effort, but one that draws the curtain back on the broader work we do as glaciologists. We are also artists and educators, caretakers, archivists, and public figures. Our work can be physically, mentally, and emotionally demanding, and it is as often full of grief as it is of awe.

Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse concernent l’utilisation de données de télédétection inédites pour le suivi des glaciers du massif du Mont Blanc : les images radar à synthèse d’ouverture Haute Résolution (HR) du satellite TerraSAR-X et les prises de vue HR d’un appareil photo numérique automatique. Cette thèse s’attache à montrer l’apport de ces sources d’informations hétérogènes pour mesurer le déplacement de surface des glaciers alpins. Dans cette optique, un examen des méthodes de mesure de déplacement spécifiques à chacun des deux types d’images est réalisé. Deux approches sont alors explorées : la mesure de déplacement monosource dans la géométrie propre à chaque capteur et la mesure de déplacement multisource via des combinaisons intra-capteur et inter-capteur. Alors que l’approche monosource fournit uniquement des mesures 2D du déplacement, les mesures multisources permettent pour la première fois d’estimer des champs de déplacement 3D de la surface des glaciers du Mont Blanc. Les mesures ont été réalisées sur plusieurs séries temporelles d’images couvrant la période 2008-2009 pour quatre glaciers du massif du Mont Blanc (Argentière, Mer de Glace/Leschaux, Bossons et Taconnaz). Dans le contexte du changement climatique, ces mesures de déplacement de surface fournissent une donnée intéressante en glaciologie pour contraindre les modèles numériques d’écoulement et d’évolution des glaciers. / The works presented in this PhD thesis focuses on the use of new remote sensing data for "massif du Mont Blanc" glaciers’ monitoring: High Resolution (HR) synthetic aperture radar images of TerraSAR-X satellite and HR shooting of the automatic digital camera. This thesis will show the contribution of this heterogeneous information to the measurement of the surface displacement of alpine glacier. For this purpose, a review of displacement measurement methods specific to each of the two types of image is proposed. Then two approaches are explored: the mono-source displacement measurement in the geometry for each sensor and the multi-source displacement measurement via intra-sensor and inter-sensor combinations. While the mono-source approach provides only 2D displacement measurements, multi-source measurements allow, for the first time, the estimation of 3D surface displacement fields of the Mont Blanc glaciers. The measurements were performed on several image time series covering the period 2008-2009 for four Mont Blanc glaciers (Argentière, Mer de Glace/Leschaux, Bossons et Taconnaz). In the context of global warming, these surface displacement measurements provide interesting data in the glaciology domain in order to constrain flow and evolution digital models.

Thèse (D.R.Min.) -- Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, programme en association avec l'Université du Québec à Montréal, 2005. / Bibliogr.: f. 156-160. Document électronique également accessible en format PDF. CaQCU

L’altération chimique et l’érosion physique de la croûte continentale mobilisent de grandes quantités de matière sous formes solide et dissoute. Première productrice de sédiments sur le globe, la chaîne Himalayenne délivre ~1 Gt/a de sédiments aux océans. L'importance des différents facteurs qui contrôlent les flux érodés et celle des processus d’érosion (glaciers, glissements de terrain, sols) sont pourtant encore mal définies. Il en va ainsi des facteurs climatiques, en particulier de leur impact au cours des transitions climatiques. Afin de répondre à ces questions, ce travail s’attache à comparer la composition géochimique des produits de l’érosion à celles des sédiments actuels de rivière et des archives sédimentaires de la plaine du Gange. Un premier bilan des processus d’érosion a été établi petite échelle dans le bassin Haut-Himalayan de la Khudi. L’érosion actuelle conséquente de ce bassin de ~3mm/a se produit lors de la mousson, correspond pour l'essentiel à l’érosion des sols et surtout à l'intense activité d'une zone de glissement de terrain. Grâce au développement d'une nouvelle méthode de destruction de la matière organique, la mesure de l’hydratation des silicates a pu être utilisée comme traceur inédit des sols. Sur cette base, l’inversion des compositions des sédiments de la rivière démontre que l’érosion physique est dominée à ~80% par le glissement de terrain, l’érosion de sols étant mineure et comparable aux taux d’érosion des autres bassins alentours. L’érosion chimique qui conduit à un flux d'éléments dissous de 7.9 kt/a (soit une érosion équivalente de 0.02 mm/a) semble dériver de l’altération profonde du substrat rocheux. Néanmoins les flux d'éléments dissous dessinent également une relation marquée avec les flux particulaires durant la mousson, suggérant une altération additionnelle des sédiments au cours du transport fluvial. Une approche similaire a ensuite été menée à l’échelle plus vaste du bassin de la Narayani drainant l’ensemble du Népal central. Grâce à des mesures de courant par ADCP combinées à l’échantillonnage de sédiments en profondeur, un modèle de transport sédimentaire a été utilisé pour intégrer les flux sédimentaires en profondeur et ainsi réviser le taux d’érosion moyen sur le bassin versant à une valeur de ~1.7 mm/a, proche des taux d'érosion long-terme. Un système géochimique associant la mesure du δD des silicates associée aux concentrations en carbonate s’est révélé un traceur diagnostique de l’érosion glaciaire dans le Nord du bassin, tandis que la teneur en matière organique du sédiment a pu être utilisée comme traceur des sols. L’analyse temporelle des flux de sédiments, de leur composition et du signal granulométrique, a ainsi permis d’établir que seule une faible fraction des sédiments (<20%) provenait de l’érosion par les glaciers et les sols. À l'échelle du Népal central, l’érosion physique semble donc également dominée par les glissements déclenchés lors de la période de mousson. Le grand cône alluvial de la Narayani-Gandak, situé au débouché de cette rivière dans la plaine du Ganges, a enregistré l’histoire récente de l’érosion du Népal central. Trois forages réalisés dans ce méga-cône permettent ainsi d'étudier l'évolution de l'altération et de l'érosion en Himalaya au cours du tardi-Pléistocène. Ces dépôts sédimentaires révèlent une étonnante stabilité depuis ~45 ka de la géochimie, des provenances et du degré d’altération des sédiments. Seule l’intensité de l’érosion mesurée par isotopes cosmogéniques semble augmenter au cours de l’Holocène. Par contraste, l’évolution très récente de la distribution de l’érosion dans la chaîne est marquée par un accroissement (x3) de la proportion de matériel des régions basses et plus peuplées de l'Himalaya, montrant que les activités anthropiques, via notamment une forte croissance du réseau routier durant la dernière décennie, [...] / Chemical weathering and physical erosion of the continental crust mobilise huge amounts of both solid and dissolved material. As the first sediment generator on the Earth, the Himalayan range releases around 1 Gt/y of sediment into the ocean. The relative influence of the different factors that control the eroded fluxes and the importance of the erosion processes (such as landslides, glaciers, soils) are as yet poorly understood. The same is true of the climatic factors, especially regarding their impact during climatic transition periods. In order to address those questions, this work focuses on comparing the geochemical composition of erosion products to the composition of present river sediment and of sedimentary records in the Ganga Plain. A first budget of the erosion processes was done on a small scale in the Khudi catchment of Higher Himalaya. The total present-day erosion is considerable, at around 3 mm/y and takes place during the monsoon. It is mainly linked to the soils erosion and more importantly to the intense activity of a landsliding area. The development of a new method for the destruction of organic matter enabled the use of silicates hydration as a tracer for soils. Based on this method, a mathematical inversion of the sediment compositions was performed. It highlights that the landslide is responsible for ~80% of the overall physical erosion. The soil erosion is minor and is comparable to the erosion rates measured in the neighbouring catchments. The chemical erosion leads to a dissolved flux of 7.9 kt/y (corresponding to an erosion rate of 0.02mm/y) and seems to come from the bedrock deep weathering. Nevertheless, the dissolved fluxes also appear to be linked with the particles fluxes during the monsoon. This suggests an additional weathering of the sediment during the fluvial transport. A similar approach was used on a larger scale in the Narayani catchment that drains the whole of Central Nepal. Through ADCP-based current measurements combined with deep sediment sampling, a model for sedimentary transport was used to integrate the deep sediment fluxes. The average catchment-scale erosion rate was then corrected to a value of ~1.7 mm/y, close to the long-term erosion rates. A geochemical system that combines the measurement of the δD of silicates and the concentrations of carbonates was found to be a diagnosis tracer for glacial erosion in the northern part of the catchment. The organic matter ratio was used as a tracer for soils. The temporal analysis of sediment fluxes, as well as the sediment composition and granulometry showed that only a small fraction (< 20%) of the sediment comes from glacial and soils erosion. Over the whole Central Nepal, the physical erosion seems also to be dominated by the landslides that are triggered during the monsoon. The large Narayani-Gandak alluvial fan is located at the river mouth and can be used as a record of the recent history of Central Nepal erosion. Three drillings were done in this fan to enable the study of the evolution of Himalayan weathering and erosion during the Late Pleistocene. The sedimentary deposits display a surprising stability in their geochemistry, their sources and their weathering stage for the last ~45 ky. The erosion intensity derived from cosmogenic nuclides is the only feature that seems to have risen during Holocene. However, the very recent evolution of the erosion distribution in the range is characterised by an increase (x3) of the proportion of products coming from the lower, more densely populated areas. This shows that the anthropogenic activities have had a larger impact on the erosion than the last Pleistocene-Holocene transition, especially through the rapid growth of the road network during the last decade.

Since the mid-20th century, global average temperatures have dramatically risen mostly due to the increasing amount of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere. The effects of this recent global warming are already evident and could be exacerbated in the near future if no real action is taken. Recent ice loss in West Antarctica, monitored by satellite measurements and other techniques, gives cause for concern in such a warming world. A major part of this loss has been driven by warm water masses penetrating underneath the ice shelves in this region. This has led to a flow acceleration of the inland outlet glaciers and a greater discharge of ice to the ocean. The actual resulting contribution of West Antarctica to sea-level rise is estimated to be around 0.2 mm per year between 1992 and 2011, i.e. about one third of the ice-sheet contribution (Antarctica and Greenland), and is expected to increase in the near future.<p><p>In this thesis, we first clearly demonstrate that modeling grounding-line (the boundary between grounded and floating ice) migration depends on both the numerical approach and the physical approximation of the ice-sheet model used. Ice-sheet models prescribing the ice flux at the grounding line and using appropriate physical level and numerical approach converge to the same steady-state grounding-line position irrespective of the grid size used. However, the transient behavior of those models is less accurate than other models and leads to an overestimated grounding-line discharge. Therefore, they need to be used with particular attention on short time scales. Furthermore, the non-inclusion of vertical shear stress in those models increases the effective viscosity and gives steady-state grounding-line positions further downstream when compared to full-Stokes models.<p><p>The second major finding of this thesis is the high control of geometry (glacier width and bedrock topography) on Thwaites Glacier, one of the fastest-flowing outlet glaciers in West Antarctica. A flowline finite-difference Shallow-Shelf Approximation (SSA) model is applied to the glacier and shows that ice-flow convergence (through width parameterization) slows down the grounding-line retreat when compared to simulations where the width is constant. A new buttressing parameterization is also tested on the glacier and permits a better understanding of this effect. Finally, the three-dimensional version of the model above is applied to Thwaites Glacier and highlights the strong control of lateral variations in bedrock topography on grounding-line migration./Depuis le milieu du 20e siècle, les températures moyennes globales ont fortement augmenté principalement à cause de l'augmentation des émissions de gaz à effet de serre d'origine humaine. Les effets de ce réchauffement global récent sont déjà détectables et pourraient s'accentuer dans un futur proche si aucune mesure réelle n'est prise. La perte récente de glace en Antarctique de l'Ouest, enregistrée par mesures satellites et d'autres techniques, est préoccupante dans un monde qui se réchauffe. Une grande partie de cette perte de glace est due à la pénétration de masses d'eau chaude sous les plateformes de glace flottante dans cette région. Cela engendre une accélération de l'écoulement des glaciers émissaires et une plus grande décharge de glace vers l'océan. Ainsi, la contribution récente à la hausse du niveau de la mer de l'Antarctique de l'Ouest s'élève à environ 0.2 mm par an entre 1992 et 2011, c'est-à-dire près du tiers de la contribution des calottes glaciaires (Antarctique et Groenland). On estime que cette contribution va continuer à augmenter dans le futur proche.<p>Dans cette thèse, nous démontrons clairement que la modélisation de la migration de la ligne d'ancrage (frontière entre glaces posée et flottante) dépend de l'approche numérique et de l'approximation physique du modèle cryosphérique utilisé. Les modèles cryosphériques qui prescrivent le flux glaciaire à la ligne d'ancrage et qui utilisent un niveau de physique et une approche numérique appropriés convergent vers la même position d'équilibre de la ligne d'ancrage quelle que soit la taille de maille utilisée. Cependant, le comportement transitoire de ces modèles est moins précis que d'autres modèles et mène à une surestimation du flux à la ligne d'ancrage. Dès lors, ces modèles doivent être utilisés avec précaution sur de courtes périodes de temps. De plus, la non inclusion des contraintes verticales de cisaillement dans ces modèles augmente la viscosité effective et donne des positions d'équilibre de la ligne d'ancrage plus en aval en comparaison avec les modèles « full-Stokes ».<p>La seconde découverte majeure de cette thèse est le contrôle important exercé par la géométrie (largeur du glacier et topographie du lit rocheux) sur Thwaites Glacier, l'un des glaciers émissaires les plus rapides en Antarctique de l'Ouest. Un modèle « Shallow-Shelf Approximation » (SSA) résolvant les différences finies le long d'une ligne d'écoulement est appliqué au glacier et montre que la convergence de l'écoulement glaciaire (au travers de la paramétrisation de la largeur) ralentit le retrait de la ligne d'ancrage comparé aux simulations où la largeur est constante. Une nouvelle paramétrisation de l'effet arc-boutant est testée sur le glacier et permet de mieux comprendre cet effet. Finalement, la version en trois dimensions du modèle ci-dessus est appliquée à Thwaites Glacier et met en évidence le contrôle important des variations latérales de l'altitude du lit rocheux sur la migration de la ligne d'ancrage. / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Antarctic ice shelves control the ice flux from the continent to the ocean. As such, they play a major role in the stability of the ice sheet and its potential contribution to sea level rise, especially in the context of global change. Below some of these ice shelves, marine ice can be found which is a product of the Deep Thermohaline Circulation. Due to its specific genetic process, marine ice has intrinsic physical (grain size, ice fabric, bubble content, ) and chemical (impurities, water stable isotopes) properties, that differ from those of 'meteoric ice' formed on the continent through snow metamorphism or 'sea ice' resulting from sea water freezing at the ocean-atmosphere surface. Until now however, the effect of these specific properties on marine ice rheology is still very poorly understood.<p><p>The principal objective being to include realistic mechanical parameters for marine ice in ice shelf flow models, uniaxial compression experiments have been performed on various types of marine ice samples. Technical developments are an important component of this thesis has they were necessary to equip the laboratory with the appropriate tools (pneumatic rig, automatic ice fabric data handling).<p><p>Results from experimental compression on isotropic marine ice show that it represents the higher boundary for meteoric ice viscosity throughout the whole temperature range, thereby validating Cuffey and Paterson's relationship with an enhancement factor equals to 1.<p><p>Marine ice is however often quite anisotropic, showing elongated crystals and wide single maximum fabric, that should impact its mechanical properties. Experiments on pre-oriented marine ice samples have therefore been carried out combining the study of epsilon_{oct} vs. tau_{oct} with a thorough analysis of microstructural data 'before' and 'after' the experiment. <p><p>Depending on the orientation of the sample in the applied stress field and on the intensity of the latter, anisotropic marine ice can be harder or softer than its isotropic counterpart, with n=4 often observed in Glen's flow law. Associating the experimental geometrical settings to potential natural equivalent, results suggest that anisotropic marine ice would strengthen ice shelf flow in most areas (for a same given temperature), apart from suturing areas between individual ice streams as they merge to form the ice shelf, where it could become weaker than meteoric ice in certain circumstances.<p><p>Finally, preliminary sensitivity studies, using a simple ice shelf model with our experimental parameters of Glen's flow law have allowed us to discuss the potential impact of rift location, rift size and thermal regime in the ice shelf behavior. / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Dans le contexte actuel du changement climatique, les glaciers arctiques contribuent de manière importante à l’élévation du niveau marin. Parmi eux, les glaciers dits « polythermaux » sont relativement répandus mais leur comportement demeure toujours mal connu. Afin de mieux comprendre la réponse de ces glaciers aux modifications du climat, nous nous somme intéressés au glacier McCall, situé en Alaska arctique, une zone marquée par un réchauffement du climat relativement prononcé.<p>Nous avons utilisé les techniques modernes de radio-écho sondage (radar) et de modélisation numérique, en combinaison avec des observations et mesures de terrain, afin d’identifier les processus physiques responsables de l’évolution de ce glacier ces dernières décennies.<p>Les données radar ont permis de reconstituer la géométrie actuelle du glacier, de distinguer les zones de glace « froide » (dont la température est située sous le point de fusion) des zones de glace « chaude » (température au point de fusion), ainsi que de détecter la présence d’eau à la base du glacier.<p>Ces informations ont été introduites dans un modèle à deux dimensions d’écoulement de la glace, afin de simuler le retrait du glacier depuis le Petit Age de la Glace (fin du 19ème siècle) selon différents scenarios.<p>Les résultats montrent que le modèle est capable de simuler l’évolution du glacier ces dernières décennies de manière réaliste et que le glacier McCall peut-être considéré comme un bon indicateur du changement climatique. Ils démontrent également que le retrait du front du glacier est principalement dû aux perturbations de son bilan de masse, chaque jour plus négatif. Cependant, la percolation et le regel d’une partie de l’eau de fonte sont des processus essentiels pour expliquer le maintien du glacier. Ceux-ci ont pour effet d’ajouter de la glace à l’ensemble du système qui serait autrement perdue par écoulement et drainage. De plus, ils ont paradoxalement pour effet de diminuer la température de la glace et participent donc à ralentir sa perte de masse.<p>En conclusion, la tendance générale au retrait du glacier McCall se confirme pour les années à venir et sa disparition semble inévitable. Cependant, nos résultats suggèrent que cette évolution future pourrait être moins rapide qu’annoncé, en raison de phénomènes complexes de regel d’une partie de l’eau de fonte jouant un rôle « tampon » en contrebalançant les effets directs du réchauffement atmosphérique dans la région.<p> / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Numerous small alpine glaciers occupy the high elevation regions of the central and southern Siena Nevada, California. These glaciers change size in response to variations in climate and are therefore important indicators of climate change. An inventory based on USGS topographic maps (l :24,000) revealed 1719 glaciers and perennial snow and ice features for a total area of 39.l5 ±7.52 km2. The number of 'true' glaciers, versus non-moving ice, is estimated to be 118, covering 15.87 ± 1.69 Km2. All glaciers were located on north to northeast aspects, at elevations >3000 m. Historical photographs, geologic evidence, and field mapping were used to determine the magnitude of area loss over the past century at 14 glaciers. These glaciers decreased in area by 31% to 78%, averaging 55%. The rate of area change was determined for multiple time periods for a subset of seven glaciers. Rapid retreat occurred over the first half of the twentieth century beginning in the 1920s in response to warm/dry conditions and continued through the mid-1970s. Recession ceased during the early 1980s, when some glaciers advanced. Since the 1980s each of the seven study glaciers resumed retreat. The uniform timing of changes in area amongst study glaciers suggests a response to regional climate, while the magnitude of change is influenced by local topographic effects. Glacier area changes correlate with changes in spring and summer air temperatures. Winter precipitation is statistically unrelated to changes in glacier area. Headwall cliffs above the glaciers alter the glacier responses by reducing incoming shortwave radiation and enhancing snow accumulation via avalanching.