The study encompasses the reconstruction of the Iron Age sequence around the Limpopo River floodplain on Basinghall Farm during the second millennium AD. A survey uncovered 75 Iron Age sites, including three Moritsane and ten Toutswe facies sites for the Middle Iron Age and two Early Moloko, 16 Middle Moloko (Letsibogo facies) and 43 Late Moloko grain bin platform sites for the Late Iron Age. The local settlement sequence, which is based primarily on a ceramic analysis of surficial and excavated collections, is corroborated by radiocarbon dates, a glass bead sequence and comparative data from previous studies. The borders of the Toutswe chiefdom are shown to have extended 100 km to the south, while the Eiland sequence is refined to include an Eiland, a Moritsane and a redefined Broadhurst facies. New light is also shed on the local Moloko sequence and its correlation with historical Tswana groups in south-eastern Botswana. / Anthropology and Archaeology / M.A. (Archaeology)

Nesse trabalho foi estudado a degradação anaeróbia do alquilbenzeno linear sulfonado (LAS), um surfactante amplamente utilizado na fabricação de detergentes e presente em esgoto doméstico e águas residuárias industriais. Para isso foi utilizado reator anaeróbio de leito fluidificado em escala de bancada (1,2 L) preenchido com material suporte para imobilização da biomassa. Quatro diferentes suportes foram testados previamente em reatores de leito fluidificado em menor escala (350 ml): carvão ativado (R1), argila expandida (R2), pérolas de vidro (R3) e areia (R4). Todos os reatores foram inoculados com lodo proveniente de reator UASB utilizado no tratamento de dejetos de suinocultura e alimentados com substrato sintético acrescido de LAS. Os reatores foram mantidos a 30°C e operados com tempo de detenção hidráulica (TDH) de 18 horas. Foi possível constatar que os quatro reatores foram aptos na remoção de matéria orgânica (acima de 84%) e LAS (acima de 81%), respectivamente para concentração inicial média de 550 mg/L e 16,5 mg/L. No entanto, carvão ativado e argila expandida sofreram processo de fragmentação durante a operação do reator. Assim, areia foi o material escolhido para preencher o reator em escala de bancada devido aos bons resultados de remoção do LAS (99%), menor custo e facilidade de aquisição, quando comparada a pérola de vidro. Após 270 dias de operação, com concentrações crescentes de LAS e média de 32,3 mg/L, constatou-se que o reator em escala de bancada removeu 93% de LAS. Todos os suportes adsorveram pouco LAS (máximo de 0,43 mgLAS/gargila) não interferindo significativamente no processo de remoção biológica. Exames microscópicos realizados durante a operação dos reatores mostraram que estiveram presentes microrganismos com morfologias semelhantes a espiroquetas, bacilos, bactérias filamentosas e cocos, entre outros. A biomassa presente no final da operação do reator em escala de bancada e nos reatores menores preenchidos com pérolas de vidro (R3) e areia (R4) foi submetida à técnica de clonagem e sequenciamento do gene 16S RNAr para o Domínio Bacteria. Observou-se que os reatores apresentaram clones relacionados a diversos Filos como Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Verrucomicrobia e Firmicutes, entre outros. / This work presents the anaerobic degradation of linear alkylbenzene sulphonate (LAS), a surfactant widely used in the production of detergents and present in domestic and industrial wastewaters. It was used an anaerobic fluidized bed reactor in bench scale (1,2L) filled with support material for biomass immobilization. Four different supports were previously tested in small scale fluidized bed reactors (350 ml): activated charcoal (R1), expanded clay (R2), glass beads (R3) and sand (R4). All reactors were inoculated with sludge from a UASB reactor treating swine wastewater and were fed with a synthetic substrate supplemented with LAS. The reactors were kept at 30ºC and operated with a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 18 h. It was possible to note that the four tested reactors were able to remove organic matter (higher than 84%) and LAS (higher than 81%), respectively, to initial mean value of 550 mg/L and 16.5 mg/L. However, activated charcoal and expanded clay both produced shearing during reactor operation. Thus, sand was the chosen material to fill the bench scale reacto because of good results of LAS removal (99%) and smaller cost and affordability compared to glass beads. After 270 days of operation, with crescent LAS concentrations and average of 32,3 mg/L, it was found that the bench scale reactor was able to remove LAS in 93%. All supports adsorb a few LAS (maximun of 0.43 mgLAS/gclay). This value does not interfere in biologic removal process. Microscopic tests done during the reactor´s operation presented microorganisms with morphologies similar to spirochetes, bacillus, filamentous, cocci and others. 16S rRNA gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of samples from the bench scale reactor and smaller reactor filled with glass beads (R3) and sand (R4) revealed that these reactors gave rise to broad microbial diversity, with microorganisms belonging to the phyla Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Verrucomicrobia and Firmicutes, and others.

Nesse trabalho foi estudado a degradação anaeróbia do alquilbenzeno linear sulfonado (LAS), um surfactante amplamente utilizado na fabricação de detergentes e presente em esgoto doméstico e águas residuárias industriais. Para isso foi utilizado reator anaeróbio de leito fluidificado em escala de bancada (1,2 L) preenchido com material suporte para imobilização da biomassa. Quatro diferentes suportes foram testados previamente em reatores de leito fluidificado em menor escala (350 ml): carvão ativado (R1), argila expandida (R2), pérolas de vidro (R3) e areia (R4). Todos os reatores foram inoculados com lodo proveniente de reator UASB utilizado no tratamento de dejetos de suinocultura e alimentados com substrato sintético acrescido de LAS. Os reatores foram mantidos a 30°C e operados com tempo de detenção hidráulica (TDH) de 18 horas. Foi possível constatar que os quatro reatores foram aptos na remoção de matéria orgânica (acima de 84%) e LAS (acima de 81%), respectivamente para concentração inicial média de 550 mg/L e 16,5 mg/L. No entanto, carvão ativado e argila expandida sofreram processo de fragmentação durante a operação do reator. Assim, areia foi o material escolhido para preencher o reator em escala de bancada devido aos bons resultados de remoção do LAS (99%), menor custo e facilidade de aquisição, quando comparada a pérola de vidro. Após 270 dias de operação, com concentrações crescentes de LAS e média de 32,3 mg/L, constatou-se que o reator em escala de bancada removeu 93% de LAS. Todos os suportes adsorveram pouco LAS (máximo de 0,43 mgLAS/gargila) não interferindo significativamente no processo de remoção biológica. Exames microscópicos realizados durante a operação dos reatores mostraram que estiveram presentes microrganismos com morfologias semelhantes a espiroquetas, bacilos, bactérias filamentosas e cocos, entre outros. A biomassa presente no final da operação do reator em escala de bancada e nos reatores menores preenchidos com pérolas de vidro (R3) e areia (R4) foi submetida à técnica de clonagem e sequenciamento do gene 16S RNAr para o Domínio Bacteria. Observou-se que os reatores apresentaram clones relacionados a diversos Filos como Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Verrucomicrobia e Firmicutes, entre outros. / This work presents the anaerobic degradation of linear alkylbenzene sulphonate (LAS), a surfactant widely used in the production of detergents and present in domestic and industrial wastewaters. It was used an anaerobic fluidized bed reactor in bench scale (1,2L) filled with support material for biomass immobilization. Four different supports were previously tested in small scale fluidized bed reactors (350 ml): activated charcoal (R1), expanded clay (R2), glass beads (R3) and sand (R4). All reactors were inoculated with sludge from a UASB reactor treating swine wastewater and were fed with a synthetic substrate supplemented with LAS. The reactors were kept at 30ºC and operated with a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 18 h. It was possible to note that the four tested reactors were able to remove organic matter (higher than 84%) and LAS (higher than 81%), respectively, to initial mean value of 550 mg/L and 16.5 mg/L. However, activated charcoal and expanded clay both produced shearing during reactor operation. Thus, sand was the chosen material to fill the bench scale reacto because of good results of LAS removal (99%) and smaller cost and affordability compared to glass beads. After 270 days of operation, with crescent LAS concentrations and average of 32,3 mg/L, it was found that the bench scale reactor was able to remove LAS in 93%. All supports adsorb a few LAS (maximun of 0.43 mgLAS/gclay). This value does not interfere in biologic removal process. Microscopic tests done during the reactor´s operation presented microorganisms with morphologies similar to spirochetes, bacillus, filamentous, cocci and others. 16S rRNA gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of samples from the bench scale reactor and smaller reactor filled with glass beads (R3) and sand (R4) revealed that these reactors gave rise to broad microbial diversity, with microorganisms belonging to the phyla Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Verrucomicrobia and Firmicutes, and others.

No description available.

This study investigates various glass objects from the 17th and 18th centuries in Thuringia to gain insight into their manufacturing techniques. The objects include glass beads from the Roten Schmelzzimmer and diverse glass objects from the Schwarzburg-Sondershausen collection. The analytical methods include optical microscopy, CT, SEM-EDX, LA-ICP-MS and Raman spectroscopy. The glass beads from the Roten Schmelzzimmer were identified as soda-lime- and high-lead-silicate glasses, which were made using highly pure sands and halophytic plant ashes as a fluxing agent. These recipes are characteristic from the Mediterranean region. The beads were coloured in 11 different colours with copper, cobalt, manganese, iron, and were possibly opacified with salt and tartrate. The analysed glass objects from the Schwarzburg collection were made using different recipes based on potash-lime-silicate glass with high amounts of potash and calcium, and calcinated-bone ashes as a white opacifier, characteristic of central Europe.

The aim of the present thesis is to explore sustainable low cost environmentally friendly composite materials. It is a step by step experimental research. Firstly, taking under consideration the so far commercial available non-organic materials used as reinforcement and the petroleum based resins used as matrices, composite materials were fabricated and mechanically characterized. Different components in micro- and nano- scale were combined. Afterwards, the non-organic materials used as reinforcements were substituted by different types of non conventional natural-based fillers. The fillers (corn starch and olive pit granules) were in powder form, derived from agricultural local resources and additionally flax fabric used to produce laminated composites. All the semi-green epoxy composites were characterized by means of three-point bending testing. Moreover, the manufactured composites were induced in several sources of damage and their residual properties were extensively investigated. More precisely, the effect of the strain-rate and low velocity impact as well as of thermal fatigue, on the mechanical properties of the olive pit and the flax fabric reinforced resin was studied. Since, conventional and semi-green composite materials were fabricated and experimentally investigated, the final objective of the present thesis was to produce novel green composites materials by substituting the petroleum-based epoxy resin with a biodegradable derived from natural resources biopolyester. In order to accomplish this target, polylactic acid (PLA) was combined with olive pits in powder form at different concentrations. Olive pits, is almost unknown non-traditional filler to composites, obtained during the oil extraction process. It is a raw material characterized by its low cost and its abundance, since it consists a waste product of the olive oil industry. In order to successfully accomplish this part of research, experiments were taken place in France at the CMGD (Centre des Matériaux de Grande Diffusion) Institute of the École Nationale Supérieure des Mines d’ Alés, under the guidance of Prof. A. Bergeret within the framework of research cooperation with the main supervisor of this thesis, Prof. G. Papanicolaou. The most important feature of the present green composites is their satisfactory mechanical and thermal performance in combination with their complete biodegradability. The PLA/olive pit composites could be applied to various components with moderate strength such as automotive interiors, interior building applications, durable goods, serviceware and food packaging material The aim of this part of the study was to investigate the effect of three types of olive pit powder at different weights fractions on the physical and mechanical properties of polylactide (PLA) matrix composites. For the preparation of the powder, two different grinding procedures were applied, producing three types of olive pit powder. Various measurements were accomplished to determine characteristics such as the density and the size distribution and the shape of the powder. Different PLA/ olive pits powder composites were manufactured by extrusion and injection molding. A comparative study between the different composites was made in order to investigate the matrix-filler interactions, occurring between the PLA and olive pit granules and their overall physical, mechanical and thermomechanical properties were investigated by means of TGA, FT-IR, DSC, SEM, flexural and uni-axial tensile testing. Finally, theoretical predictive models were applied in most of the composite materials manufactured in the present work. These models making use of minimal number of experimental results can satisfactorily predict the residual properties of damaged materials, irrespectively of the type of the material investigated and the damage source. Namely, the Modulus Predictive Model (ΜPM), the Residual Properties Model (RPM) and the Residual Strength after Impact Model (RSIM), have been successfully applied. A big number of interesting conclusions have been derived from the present work. However, a general conclusion is that a totally green composite with useful properties and applications is a promising target for the humanity and the planet survivability. / Σκοπός της παρούσας διδακτορικής διατριβής είναι η κατασκευή και μελέτη συνθέτων υλικών χαμηλού κόστους ενισχυμένων με φυσικά υλικά, φιλικά προς το περιβάλλον. Η επίτευξη αυτού του στόχου πραγματοποιήθηκε σταδιακά. Αρχικά, πραγματοποιήθηκε μια εκτεταμένη μελέτη διαφορετικών συνθέτων υλικών τα οποία ήταν εξ’ ολοκλήρου κατασκευασμένα από ανόργανα και συνθετικά υλικά. Γι’ αυτό το σκοπό κατασκευάστηκαν και μελετήθηκαν οι μηχανικές ιδιότητες συνθέτων υλικών που έχουν ως μήτρα μια εμπορικά διαθέσιμη πετροχημική εποξειδική ρητίνη. Η εποξειδική ρητίνη ενισχύθηκε με ανόργανα υλικά σε μικρο- (συμπαγή και κενά σφαιρίδια γυαλίου) και νανο- (νανοσωλήνες άνθρακα πολλαπλού τοιχώματος) διαστάσεις. Στη συνέχεια, βασιζόμενη στο ήδη υπάρχον επιστημονικό υπόβαθρο, καθώς η μεταπτυχιακή μου εργασία ειδίκευσης ήταν στο ίδιο ερευνητικό πεδίο με το αντικείμενο της διδακτορικής μου διατριβής, γίνεται προσπάθεια περαιτέρω εξέλιξης της έρευνας που σχετίζεται με την μελέτη και κατασκευή συνθέτων φιλικών προς το περιβάλλον. Ως εκ τούτου, το επόμενο στάδιο της πειραματικής μελέτης στα πλαίσια εκπόνησης της διατριβής αυτής, ήταν η κατασκευή και χαρακτηρισμός, ως προς την μηχανική τους συμπεριφορά, συνθέτων υλικών πολυμερικής εποξειδικής μήτρας ενισχυμένης με διαφορετικού τύπου φυσικές ενισχύσεις και περιεκτικότητες. Οι φυσικές ενισχύσεις που επιλέχθηκαν να μελετηθούν ήταν τόσο σε μορφή κόκκων και μικρο-ινών, όσο και σε μορφή υφάσματος. Τα εγκλείσματα που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν ήταν σκόνη από κόκκους ελαιοπυρήνα και σκόνη αμύλου καλαμποκιού. Στα σύνθετα υλικά ενισχυμένα με κόκκους ελαιοπυρήνα, έγινε μελέτη της επίδρασης των διαφορετικών ρυθμών παραμόρφωσης στις μηχανικές τους ιδιότητες, ενώ στα σύνθετα υλικά ενισχυμένα με την σκόνη αμύλου μελετήθηκαν εκτενώς οι στατικές μηχανικές τους ιδιότητες. Επιπλέον, κατασκευάστηκαν πολύστρωτα σύνθετα υλικά χρησιμοποιώντας για τις διάφορες στρώσεις ύφασμα από ίνες λιναριού. Τα πολύστρωτα σύνθετα υλικά χαρακτηρίστηκαν ως προς τις μηχανικές τους ιδιότητες, υποβλήθηκαν σε θερμική κόπωση και υπέστησαν κρούση χαμηλής ενέργεια. Οι εναπομένουσες μηχανικές ιδιότητες των υλικών αυτών μελετήθηκαν τόσο πειραματικά όσο και θεωρητικά. Ο απώτερος στόχος αυτής της διδακτορικής διατριβής ήταν να γίνει η δυνατή η κατασκευή συνθέτων υλικών τα οποία να είναι πλήρως βιοδιασπώμενα και φιλικά προς το περιβάλλον. Για το σκοπό αυτό, το τρίτο και τελευταίο στάδιο της έρευνας που διεξήχθη στα πλαίσια της παρούσας διατριβής, ήταν η κατασκευή εξολοκλήρου φυσικών συνθέτων υλικών έχοντας ως μήτρα ένα βιοδιασπώμενο πολυεστέρα φυτικής προέλευσης, το πολύ (γαλακτικό οξύ), ενισχυμένο με σκόνη από κόκκους ελαιοπυρήνα. Ο ξηρός ελαιοπυρήνας που χρησιμοποιήθηκε, αποτελεί μέρος των αποβλήτων που προκύπτουν από την διαδικασία παραγωγής ελαιολάδου. Ο ελαιοπυρήνας σε αυτή την μορφή έχοντας μηδαμινό κόστος απαντάται σε εξαιρετικά μεγάλες ποσότητες και σε σημαντικό ποσοστό εναποτίθεται στους περιβάλλοντα χώρους των μονάδων παραγωγής του ελαιολάδου. Η ερευνητική εργασία που σχετίζεται με αυτό το αντικείμενο του διδακτορικού έλαβε χώρα στην Γαλλία στο École Nationale Supérieure des Mines d’ Alés, στο ερευνητικό ινστιτούτο CMGD (Centre des Matériaux de Grande Diffusion) υπό την επίβλεψη της καθηγήτριας A. Bergeret, στα πλαίσια ερευνητικής συνεργασίας του επιβλέποντα καθηγητή Γ. Παπανικολάου και της ερευνητικής του ομάδας. Τα πειράματα που διεξήχθησαν στο ερευνητικό ινστιτούτο CMGD, περιελάμβαναν αρχικά την προετοιμασία των κόκκων του ελαιοπυρήνα στην κατάλληλη μορφή για να είναι δυνατή η χρησιμοποίησή τους ως ενισχυτικό υλικό. Έγινε κονιορτοποίηση των κόκκων από την οποία προέκυψαν δύο τύπου σκονών που διέφεραν ως προς την διασπορά του μεγέθους των κόκκων, ενώ μια τρίτη σκόνη ελαιοπυρήνα είχε ήδη προετοιμαστεί με διαφορετική μέθοδο κονιορτοποίησης στο τμήμα Επιστήμης των Υλικών του Πανεπιστήμιου Πατρών. Έγινε εκτενής χαρακτηρισμός των φυσικών και μορφολογικών ιδιοτήτων όλων των σκονών ελαιοπυρήνα που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για την κατασκευή των συνθέτων υλικών με μήτρα το PLA. Προσδιορίστηκαν διαφορετικού τύπου πυκνότητες και η διασπορά του μεγέθους των κόκκων. Έγινε θερμική ανάλυση με δοκιμή θερμοζυγού (TGA), μορφολογικός χαρακτηρισμός με χρήση ηλετρονικού μικροσκοπίου σάρωσης (SEM) καθώς και χαρακτηρισμός με φασματοσκοπία υπερύθρου με μετασχηματισμό Fourier (FT IR) και ακτίνων-Χ. Αφού ολοκληρώθηκε ο χαρακτηρισμός των ιδιοτήτων της ενισχυτικής φάσης, στη συνέχεια κατασκευάστηκαν σύνθετα υλικά μήτρας PLA ενισχυμένα με τους κόκκους ελαιοπυρήνα σε διαφορετικές περιεκτικότητες. Η προετοιμασία των σύνθετων αυτών υλικών πραγματοποιήθηκε σε δύο στάδια. Αρχικά έγινε μια πρώτη μορφοποίηση με εξώθηση (extrusion). Τα σύνθετα υλικά που προέκυψαν από την εξώθηση που ήταν στη μορφή δισκίων (pellets) χαρακτηρίστηκαν και αυτά με διάφορες τεχνικές (WAXD, DSC, TGA). Τα σύνθετα υλικά υπό μορφή δισκίων για να αποκτήσουν την τελική τους μορφή ως δοκίμια κατάλληλα για μηχανικές δοκιμές κατά τα πρότυπα ISO 527, μορφοποιήθηκαν με έγχυση (Injection molding). Τα σύνθετα υλικά στην τελική τους μορφή χαρακτηρίστηκαν με διάφορες τεχνικές (WAXD, DSC, TGA), έγινε χαρακτηρισμός των μηχανικών τους ιδιοτήτων και μορφολογική παρατήρηση των επιφανειών τους ύστερα από την μηχανική τους αστοχία (SEM). Τέλος, σε πολλά από τα σύνθετα υλικά που κατασκευάστηκαν και μελετήθηκαν πειραματικά, εφαρμόστηκαν διαφορετικά ημιεμπειρικά μοντέλα ανάλυσης και πρόβλεψης της μηχανικής τους συμπεριφοράς. Στο κυρίως κείμενο της διδακτορικής διατριβής, περιγράφεται σε ξεχωριστό κεφάλαιο το σύνολο των θεωρητικών μοντέλων που εφαρμόστηκαν στα πειραματικά αποτελέσματα. Στα επιμέρους κεφάλαια που παρουσιάζονται και αναλύονται τα πειραματικά αποτελέσματα, παρατίθενται η σύγκρισή τους με τις αντίστοιχες προβλέψεις που πρόεκυψαν από την εφαρμογή των θεωρητικών μοντέλων. Από τη σύγκριση αυτή παρατηρούμε ότι τα θεωρητικά μοντέλα που εφαρμόστηκαν που είναι το μοντέλο πρόβλεψης του μέτρου ελαστικότητας κοκκωδών υλικών, ΜPM (Modulus Predictive Model), το μοντέλο πρόβλεψης της υποβάθμισης ιδιοτήτων ύστερα από διαφορετικές είδους καταπονήσεις (θερμική κόπωση, κρούση χαμηλής ενέργειας και του ρυθμού παραμόρφωσης σε κάμψη τριών σημείων), RPM (Residual Properties Model) και το μοντέλο πρόβλεψης της υποβάθμισης της αντοχής των υλικών ύστερα από κρούση, Residual Strength after Impact Model (RSIM), έδωσαν ικανοποιητικές προβλέψεις για την μεταβολή των ιδιοτήτων κάνοντας χρήση ελάχιστων μόνο πειραματικών σημείων. Στην παρούσα διατριβή συνδυάστηκαν δύο διαφορετικού τύπου πολυμερικές ρητίνες με πληθώρα ενισχυτικών υλικών για την κατασκευή και μελέτη της μηχανικής τους συμπεριφοράς, τόσο πειραματικά όσο και θεωρητικά με την εφαρμογή ημιεμπειρικών μοντέλων πρόβλεψης και ανάλυσης. Για την κατασκευή των δοκιμίων, ανάλογα με τον τύπο του υλικού της μήτρας και της ενίσχυσης, εφαρμόστηκαν διαφορετικές τεχνικές και σύνθετες πειραματικές διαδικασίες. Ενώ, για την μελέτη των μηχανικών, θερμομηχανικών και μορφολογικών τους ιδιοτήτων εφαρμόστηκε σημαντικός αριθμός διαφορετικών τεχνικών χαρακτηρισμού.

Granular materials are characterized by its discrete nature which makes their behaviour very complex to understand when subjected to various loading situations. Comparing other materials, the understanding of granular materials is poor. This is because experimental analysis provides the macroscopic responses of the considered assembly whereas the discrete nature of the particles point to the fact of understanding the micro scale details and correlating it with the overall behaviour. Among the various modeling tools viz. analytical, physical or numerical, Discrete Element Method (DEM) a numerical technique, originally developed by Cundall (1971, 1974) and modified by Cundall and Strack (1979a, 1979b) is widely used for granular materials. Later a thorough description of DEM was given by Cundall (1988) and Hart et al (1988). Moreover Cundall & Hart (1992) reported discrete element code as one which allows finite displacements and rotations of discrete bodies along with recognition of new contacts as the calculation progresses which is followed in particle flow code and is used for this study. Generally the discrete particles are modeled as discs or spheres in 2-D and 3-D simulations respectively. The discs or spheres were considered as it is very easy to characterize the grain interactions and the contact detection. Even though the significance of particle shape has been reported in literature, a comprehensive 3-D study of the effect of particle shape on the various aspects of soil behaviour is lacking and is not reported. Particle shape is generally defined in terms of elongation, roundness and texture. Elongation is an indication of the particle aspect ratio whereas roundness measures the sharpness or angularity of particle’s edges and corners. Texture is related to the roughness of the surface. Particle gradation also plays a role in the mechanical behaviour. The influence of each of these factors on the mechanical behaviour of the assembly is important. Hence the major factors like elongation, texture etc which are used to define the particle shape are incorporated in this study. Evaluating the particle shape is another hurdle. In this study, the particle shape is analyzed using a 3D laser scanner which helps to identify the major and minor axis lengths of the particle. Additionally, the effective use of 3D DEM on large scale real life applications incorporating the particle shape effect is also not dealt with very extensively. Hence in this research, a comprehensive study on the calibration of DEM using glass beads, effect of particle shape on drained and undrained monotonic behaviour, liquefaction, post liquefaction and dynamic properties and the application of DEM to a grain polishing machine and an underground tunnel assembly is presented. In the present study, a set of drained triaxial tests were done on glass bead assembly using a laboratory triaxial set up. The glass beads used for the test were spherical and ellipsoidal in shape. The shape of glass beads was characterized through a sophisticated method of 3D laser scanning. In this scanning, the shape of the image of the glass bead is captured through an array of digitized points. These images obtained as unstructured 3D triangular meshes on processing will render the long and short axes of the particle which can be used for proper modeling of the particle shape. After obtaining the long and short axes for the particles, the same is used for the numerical modeling of the glass beads. The numerical simulation results have shown that the assembly modeled with clumped particles gives results qualitatively and quantitatively similar to the observed experimental macro responses. Hence this is used to demonstrate the power of DEM to realistically model the granular behaviour by incorporating the particle shape effect. In addition, undrained simulation of granular material has been numerically predicted from drained triaxial tests which are similar to the approach proposed by Norris et al (1997). An excellent correlation between undrained results predicted from drained triaxial test and undrained test (performed under constant volume conditions) has been observed. This further underlines the fact that the constant volume simulations are equivalent to undrained tests. Having validated the DEM results to the values obtained from the experiments on glass beads, a series of monotonic drained and undrained triaxial tests were performed on cylindrical assemblies of height to diameter ratio 2:1. Four different sets of assemblies were prepared which consists of particles of different aspect ratio to study the influence of particle shape. The behaviour of these assemblies under drained shearing indicates that the strength of the clumped assemblies is higher than that of the spherical assembly at all confining pressures. This has been explained from the magnitude of the anisotropic vi coefficients associated with the fabric and normal contact force tensors. It is also noted that eventhough both assemblies reach the peak strength at the same axial strain, the strain softening associated with the clumped assembly is very rapid which is due to the fact that clumps try to push each other apart as it offers more resistance to rotation resulting in dilation. Another significant observation is that a general increase in aspect ratio will not keep on increasing the strength. As the aspect ratio increases, the particles have a tendency to orient along their larger dimensions. This helps them to attain the lowest potential energy leading to a stable equilibrium and resulting in inherent fabric anisotropy. But when the particles try to align along the larger dimension, the formation of strong contact forces along the direction of loading is hindered. In addition, the lower strength associated with the higher aspect ratio particle assembly can also be attributed to the formation of unexpected void spaces when these longer particles bridge gaps over the underlying grains. The critical state studies indicate that the clumped assembly is having a higher residual strength compared to that of the spherical assembly. In the case of clumped assemblies also, irrespective of the initial loose or dense state of the assembly and the confining pressure applied, the samples reached the same critical state which underlines that the critical state is unique for a granular material. Moreover, the critical state line is non-linear for both the spherical and clumped assemblies. The studies conducted on the liquefaction behaviour indicates that at lower confining pressures the assemblies with particles consisting of lower aspect ratios loses its strength at less number of cycles which can be attributed to the interlocking of non-spherical particles resulting in higher number of contacts per particle. Moreover, during the initial cycles of loading, it is seen that the strong contacts are predominantly in the vertical direction or more precisely along the direction of maximum axial strain. But the plots extracted at higher cycles indicated that the strong contacts along the vertical direction have diminished considerably. This reduction in contact force magnitude and force chain indicates a drop in the number of contacts and is clearly visible in the gradual decrease of average coordination number. Another significant observation is that as the confining stresses increases, the rate of pore pressure generation of the assembly vii consisting of only spherical particles is less compared to the other two samples. Furthermore, at higher confining pressures, when the load direction reverses, the fabric of the clumped assemblies fails to change to a new orientation immediately. But to retain equilibrium the force anisotropy will quickly adjust itself. This mismatch results in losing the contacts and resulting in lower strength and less resistance to liquefaction at higher stresses for assemblies consisting of clumped particles. The post liquefaction study of the numerically liquefied samples shows that the assembly consisting of clumped shaped particles gained strength at a much faster rate compared to the assembly consisting of only spheres. This may be attributed to the ability of the clumps to rearrange themselves on a faster rate compared to that of the spherical particles. The rate of development of average coordination number is very significant as it explains the ability of the assembly to build up the deviatoric stress from a complete collapsed structure. As the contacts develop, the average coordination number as well as the deviatoric stress starts increasing with both the values higher for the assembly consisting of clumped particles. The evaluation of the dynamic properties viz. shear modulus and damping ratio showed a trend similar to the experimental observations on real granular materials. It is observed that the normalized shear modulus reduces with an increase in shear strain and the rate of reduction is very high at low strains for all the samples. It can be seen that as the confining pressure increases, the normalized shear modulus value also increases and the rate of increment is higher for the assemblies consisting of non-spherical particles. Furthermore, for all the samples the threshold shear strain is about 0.001 up to which the behaviour is elastic. Beyond the threshold shear strain, the variation of the normalized shear modulus ratio is non-linear. At small shear strains, the energy dissipation is low resulting in smaller values of damping. As the strains increase, the non-linearity in the constitutive behaviour results in higher material damping leading to high damping value. The simulations of the food polishing machine helps to understand the pattern of hitting of clumped grains on the wall with due importance to the velocity of hit, angle of hit, force of hit, and the number of grains hitting the wall. The modeling and subsequent extraction of the data helped to identify that the wear and tear of the machine was not uniform and was clustered to specific regions due to the non-uniform distribution of the considered parameters. This helped to design a more sophisticated system such that the parts which are subjected to more deterioration are provided with additional support. To bring out the effect of the particle shape, simulations are performed using spherical particles and the results show that the pattern of variation is same, but the magnitudes are different owing to the less surface area associated with the spherical particles. The 3-D simulations of an underground tunnel assembly in a weak weathered rock helped to understand the variation in the stability of the system with and without lining. It was observed that the introduction of lining resulted in a more stable configuration and the circumferential stresses were found to be distributed uniformly around the tunnel. FEM simulations also show a similar trend of stress and strain variations but were unable to capture the ground loosening around the tunnel and the formation of the ground arch whereas DEM could realistically capture all these phenomena. It was observed that as the shape changes from sphere to non-spherical particles, circumferential stresses around the tunnels increased. In addition, as the distance from the tunnel face increases, the strains are reduced. The maximum vertical strain near the crown of the tunnel is observed for the assembly consisting of spherical particles. In short, this research is focused on a comprehensive understanding of the particle shape effect on the mechanical behaviour of granular mass. Numerical simulations incorporating the shape effect has been done on drained and undrained monotonic shear tests, critical state, liquefaction, post liquefaction and dynamic properties. Besides, the granular dynamics simulation of the movement of long food grains in a food polishing machine and the behaviour of an underground tunnel in a granular assembly is also reported.

Les sites archéologiques du territoire côtier s’étirant entre le Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean et le nord du Labrador recèlent au moins 78 collections de perles de verre. Ces petits objets, témoins d’échanges interculturels formels et informels, peuvent constituer d’importants repères chrono-typologiques et pourtant, les nombreuses collections mises à jour dans cet espace n’ont pas été étudiées à leur plein potentiel. À partir des plus de 20 000 perles de verre sur ces sites, le présent mémoire construit d’abord une chrono-typologie propre à cet espace et à son histoire. Il procède par l’identification d’un corpus hautement diagnostique de 24 types de perle représentés sur 19 sites, des « fossiles directeurs » qui se démarquent visuellement pendant des périodes précises. Ensuite, le mémoire élabore des « complexes » de perles diagnostiques qui sont à la base d’une chrono-typologie régionale couvrant les années de vers 1580 à 1870. À partir de cette chrono-typologie, ce mémoire s’appuie sur la répartition régionale des perles, les connaissances sur les types de perles dont leurs provenances, et l’histoire de la navigation dans le territoire à l’étude et à travers l’Atlantique septentrional, afin de reconstituer les réseaux maritimes à l’œuvre entre l’Europe et les différents ports et havres sur la côte qui s’étend du Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean au nord du Labrador, en passant par le détroit de Belle-Isle. Il est possible de suivre le mouvement de ces témoins archéologiques dans l’espace maritime nord-atlantique pendant trois siècles, et d’observer des structures changeantes et/ou résistantes de ces réseaux maritimes à travers les complexes de perles de verre. Cette étude suit le système typologique de Kidd et Kidd (1970) et le modèle chrono-typologique des Glass Bead Periods de Kenyon et Kenyon (1983), permettant ainsi de lier ce travail à d’autres recherches spécialisées sur les perles de verre. / The archaeological sites along the coastal territory that stretches from Saguenay–Lac Saint-Jean to Northern Labrador possess at least 78 collections of glass beads. These small objects, testifying to both formal and informal intercultural exchanges, can serve as significant chrono typological references, and yet the numerous collections discovered in this area have not been studied to their full potential. Based on a total of over 20,000 glass beads found at these sites, this thesis first constructs a chrono-typology specific to this region and its history. It does so by identifying a highly diagnostic corpus of 24 bead types represented at 19 sites. These fossiles directeurs stand out visually during specific periods of time. Subsequently, the thesis defines “complexes” of diagnostic beads that form the basis of a regional chrono-typology covering there years from 1580 to 1870.Using this chrono-typology, this thesis relies on the regional distribution of beads, knowledge about the types of beads and their origins, and the history of navigation in the territory studied and across the northern Atlantic to reconstruct maritime networks at play between Europe and various ports and harbors along the coast extending from Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean to northern Labrador, passing through the Strait of Belle-Isle. It is possible to trace the movement of these artefacts in the North Atlantic maritime space over three centuries and to observe changing and/or enduring structures of these maritime networks through the glass bead complexes. This study follows the typological system of Kidd and Kidd (1970) and the chrono-typological model of Kenyon and Kenyon’s Glass Bead Periods (1983), thus connecting this work to other specialized research on glass beads.