The ability of the soluble fibre (1->3)(1->4)-β-D-glucan to attenuate postprandial glycemic responses depends on its viscosity which, in turn, depends on molecular weight (MW) and dose. However, the effect of altering viscosity by changing solution volume is unknown. Furthermore, β-glucan solutions may form hard gels when left to age, but the effect of these gels on glycemic responses is unknown. Therefore, the effects of varying the MW and volume of β-glucan solutions and hard gels, on glycemic responses were determined. The results showed that glycemic responses were reduced by increasing viscosity by increasing MW but not by reducing solution volume. Although β-glucan gels reduced the rate of glucose diffusion in vitro, they had no effect on glycemic responses in vivo. Thus, changing solution viscosity through changes in volume does not alter the effect of β-glucan on glycemic response, and β-glucan gels are ineffective at attenuating in vivo glycemic responses.

Les glucane-saccharases (GS) de la famille GH70 sont des enzymes produites par certaines bactéries lactiques. A partir de saccharose, substrat renouvelable et peu coûteux, elles sont capables de catalyser la synthèse d’α-glucanes, homopolysaccharides dont les propriétés diffèrent suivant la spécificité de l’enzyme (taille, type de liaisons α-osidiques, degrés de branchement). Les glucanes contenant une très grande majorité de liaisons α-(1,6), appelés dextranes, présentent de nombreuses applications industrielles qui dépendent principalement de leur taille. Cependant, la synthèse directe de dextranes de taille contrôlée (de 1 à plusieurs millions de kg/mol) avec une faible polydispersité et en utilisant une seule enzyme n’est encore pas envisageable. En effet, les mécanismes moléculaires mis en jeu pour le contrôle de la taille des polymères produits n’ont encore été que peu explorés. Dans ce contexte, deux GSs ont été sélectionnées. La première, DSR-M synthétise uniquement des dextranes de faible masse molaire (MM) (28 kg/mol) exclusivement composés de liaisons α-(1,6). A contrario, le second modèle, DSR-OK produit le plus long dextrane décrit à ce jour (>109 g/mol). La caractérisation biochimique et structurale ainsi que la construction de mutants ont permis l’exploration du mode d’action de ces deux candidats. Plusieurs structures 3D de DSR-M2 (forme tronquée de DSR-M) - sans ou en complexe avec son substrat ou ses produits (isomaltotetraose) - ont été résolues. C’est la première fois que de tels complexes sont décrits et l’une de ces structures présente le domaine V le plus complet décrit à ce jour. L’analyse de ces structures couplée au suivi cinétique de la synthèse du polymère ont montré que la spécificité de DSR-M pour la synthèse de dextranes courts s’explique par un mode d’élongation distributif dû à la faible affinité de deux poches à sucre de son domaine V envers la chaîne en cours de synthèse. Des analyses RMN (15N1H – HSQC) – jamais réalisées auparavant sur une protéine si grosse – ont également étayé l’importance de la présence de résidus aromatiques dans le domaine catalytique pour la synthèse de dextranes supérieurs à 2 kg/mol. En comparaison, la synthèse de dextranes de haute MM par DSR-OK est principalement due au plus grand nombre de poches à sucre de son domaine V, permettant d’assurer une meilleure interaction avec la chaîne en cours d’élongation. L’implication de ces poches dans la détermination de la taille du dextrane a été montrée pour les deux candidats. Leur fonctionnalité est fortement liée à la présence d’un résidu aromatique de stacking, et leur répartition le long du domaine V a aussi une influence. L’ensemble de ces résultats démontre la coopération du domaine V avec le domaine catalytique pour l’élongation des dextranes, tout en offrant de nouvelles perspectives pour approfondir la compréhension de ce mécanisme. Ils offrent également des stratégies prometteuses pour l’ingénierie d’enzyme de la famille des GH70 pour la modulation de la taille des glucanes. / Glucansucrases (GS) from glycoside hydrolase family 70 (GH70) are -transglucosylases produced by lactic acid bacteria. From sucrose, an economical and abundant agro resource, they catalyze the polymerization of glucosyl residues. Depending on the enzyme specificity, α-glucans vary in terms of size, types of glucosidic bonds and degree of branching and have found multiple industrial applications mainly related to their molar mass (MM). However synthesizing polymers of controlled size with average MM ranging from 1 kg/mol to several millions g/mol and low polydispersity using one single enzyme remains challenging. Indeed, the molecular mechanisms underpinning the control of polymer size have been scarcely explored. To tackle this question, two GSs producing dextran (glucan composed of a majority of α-(1,6) linkages) were selected, and their mode of action explored via biochemical and structural analyses coupled to mutagenesis. The first enzyme selected, called DSR-M synthesizes only low molar mass (LMM) dextran (28 kg/mol) exclusively composed of -(1→6) linkages without any trace of HMM dextran (105 to 108 g/mol). In contrast, DSR-OK (second model), produces the highest MM dextran (>109 g/mol) described to date. Several 3D crystallographic structures of a truncated form of DSR-M (DSR-M2), either free or in complex with its substrate or product (isomaltotetraose) in the domain V or in the active site were solved. Such complexes were never obtained before. Noteworthy, one structure encompassed the most complete domain V reported to date. Analyses of these structures coupled to dextran synthesis monitoring, showed that the LMM dextran specificity of DSR-M2 is explained by a distributive elongation mode due to the weak affinity of its two sugar binding pockets in the domain V which interact with the growing dextran chains and allow the synthesis of dextran longer than 16 kg/mol. 15N1H NMR analyses (HSQC), for the first time performed with such a big protein, further revealed the crucial role of aromatic residues in the catalytic domain for the production of dextran from 2 to 16 kg/mol. In comparison, synthesis of HMM dextran by DSR-OK was shown to be mainly due to the sugar binding pockets of its domain V, ensuring much stronger interactions with growing dextran chains. The role of these pockets was evidenced for both enzymes, their functionality proposed to be linked to the presence of one aromatic stacking residue. Their positioning along domain V relatively to the active site is also important to promote efficient binding. All these findings highlight the cooperation between domain V and the catalytic domain for dextran elongation, offer new perspectives to acquire a deeper knowledge on this interplay and open promising strategies for GH70 enzyme engineering aiming at modulating glucan size.

O presente trabalho avaliou o comportamento de três híbridos de cana-de-açúcar, contrastantes quanto aos teores de hemicelulose e lignina, diante do pré-tratamento com ácido sulfúrico diluído e da subsequente conversão enzimática da glucana à glicose. Os híbridos 89, 140 e 321 (H89, H140 e H321) foram submetidos à diferentes condições de pré-tratamento ácido: 150 ºC; 13 g ácido sulfúrico/100 g material; e tempos de reação que variaram entre 20 e 90 min. Os rendimentos de sólidos residuais diminuíram progressivamente em função do aumento da severidade do pré-tratamento. O H89 apresentou rendimentos nitidamente menores, comparados ao dos híbridos H140 e H321; reflexo da maior solubilização de todos os três constituintes estruturais deste híbrido. A hemicelulose foi o componente da parede celular removido com maior eficiência pelo pré-tratamento ácido. Além disso, o pré-tratamento modificou a proporção molar dos constituintes iniciais da hemicelulose (xilose, ácido acético e arabinose), resultando em estruturas residuais menos ramificadas. Paralelamente, também foi observada uma pequena remoção de lignina (entre 21% e 31%, dependendo do híbrido) e de glucana (entre 4% e 15%, dependendo do híbrido) durante o pré-tratamento. Os carboidratos detectados nos hidrolisados ácidos dos híbridos foram predominantemente monoméricos quando os tempos de reação foram maiores do que 40 min. No entanto, os híbridos H140 e H321 se diferenciaram do H89, pois apresentaram oligossacarídeos (DP>=2) nos hidrolisados obtidos em tempos de reação entre 20 e 30 min. Os rendimentos de conversão enzimática da glucana contida nos sólidos pré-tratados aumentaram substancialmente após o pré-tratamento ácido (principalmente devido à remoção de hemicelulose). No entanto, as conversões máximas de glucana em glicose não ultrapassaram 65%. A deslignificação parcial das amostras pré-tratadas com ácido (90 min), empregando soluções de clorito de sódio/ácido acético, permitiu aumentar a conversão enzimática de glucanas até valores próximos a 100%. De forma geral, o pré-tratamento ácido e a subsequente deslignificação proporcionaram maiores ganhos de conversão enzimática àqueles híbridos inicialmente mais recalcitrantes (H321 e H140). Os rendimentos de pré-tratamento (ácido diluído e clorito-ácido) e da conversão enzimática demonstraram que a maior obtenção de glicose por área plantada (Kg/hectare) ou por material processado (Kg/ton material) seria alcançada com a utilização dos híbridos H89 e H321, respectivamente. A investigação das características microestruturais das paredes celulares dos híbridos permitiu compreender como as etapas de tratamento químico afetaram a conversão enzimática da glucana. O pré-tratamento ácido diminuiu substancialmente o volume total de poros dos três híbridos, enquanto a subsequente deslignificação não retornou a porosidade aos níveis originalmente detectados nas amostras não tratadas. Por outro lado, a área superficial acessível de glucana dos substratos apresentou relação direta com os rendimentos de conversão enzimática da glucana à glicose (R2=0,92). A compilação dos dados analíticos, aliada às determinações de glucana acessível, permitiu propor um parâmetro empírico (relação do teor de glucana com a soma de hemicelulose+lignina+extraíveis), útil para predizer os níveis de conversão enzimática de glucana nas amostras estudadas. / This study evaluated the performance of three sugarcane hybrids, contrasting for lignin and hemicellulose contents, under dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment and subsequent enzymatic conversion of glucan to glucose. The hybrids 89, 140 and 321 (H89, H140, and H321) were pretreated at different reaction conditions: 150 °C; 13 g sulfuric acid/100 g material; and reaction time ranging from 20 to 90 min. Residual solid yields gradually decreased according to increasing of pretreatment severity. H89 showed the lowest yields compared to the H140 and H321 hybrids, due to the highest solubilization of all the three structural components. Hemicellulose was the major cell wall component removed by the acid pretreatment. Furthermore, acid pretreatment modified the molar ratio of the initial hemicellulose constituents (xylose, arabinose and acetic acid), resulting in less branched structures. Lignin (between 21% and 31%, depending on the hybrid) and glucan (between 4% and 15%, depending on the hybrid) removal were also observed during the pretreatment. Carbohydrates in liquid hydrolysates were predominantly detected as monomers at reaction times greater than 40 min. However, H140 and H321 hybrids differed from H89, since they presented oligosaccharides (DP>=2) in the hydrolysates obtained at short reaction time (20 and 30 min). Enzymatic conversion of glucan from pretreated solids was substantially increased after the acid pretreatment (mainly due to the hemicellulose removal). Nevertheless, maximum conversion of glucan to glucose did not exceed 65%. Partial delignification of the acid pretreated samples (90 min), employing sodium chlorite/acetic acid solutions, increased the enzymatic conversion of glucan to values near to 100%. In general, acid pretreatment and subsequent delignification provided higher gains of enzymatic conversion to the hybrids originally more recalcitrant (H321 and H140). The pretreatment (dilute acid and chlorite-acid) and enzymatic conversion yields demonstrated that to obtain higher amounts of glucose, taking into account the planted area (Kg/ha) or raw material processed (Kg/ton), would be achieved by using H89 and H321 hybrids, respectively. Analysis of the micro-structural features of the hybrids allowed understanding the effect of the chemical treatment step in the enzymatic conversion of glucan. Acid pretreatment significantly decreased the total pores volume of these hybrids, while the subsequent delignification do not returned the porosity to the original levels detected in raw samples. On the other hand, the accessible surface area of glucan showed a direct correlation with the enzymatic conversion levels of glucan to glucose (the model including several substrates presented R2=0.92). The compilation of analytical data, combined with the accessible glucan, allowed proposing an empirical parameter (ratio of the glucan content with the sum of hemicellulose+lignin+extractives), that was useful for predicting the enzymatic conversion levels of glucan for all the evaluated samples.

O presente trabalho avaliou o comportamento de três híbridos de cana-de-açúcar, contrastantes quanto aos teores de hemicelulose e lignina, diante do pré-tratamento com ácido sulfúrico diluído e da subsequente conversão enzimática da glucana à glicose. Os híbridos 89, 140 e 321 (H89, H140 e H321) foram submetidos à diferentes condições de pré-tratamento ácido: 150 ºC; 13 g ácido sulfúrico/100 g material; e tempos de reação que variaram entre 20 e 90 min. Os rendimentos de sólidos residuais diminuíram progressivamente em função do aumento da severidade do pré-tratamento. O H89 apresentou rendimentos nitidamente menores, comparados ao dos híbridos H140 e H321; reflexo da maior solubilização de todos os três constituintes estruturais deste híbrido. A hemicelulose foi o componente da parede celular removido com maior eficiência pelo pré-tratamento ácido. Além disso, o pré-tratamento modificou a proporção molar dos constituintes iniciais da hemicelulose (xilose, ácido acético e arabinose), resultando em estruturas residuais menos ramificadas. Paralelamente, também foi observada uma pequena remoção de lignina (entre 21% e 31%, dependendo do híbrido) e de glucana (entre 4% e 15%, dependendo do híbrido) durante o pré-tratamento. Os carboidratos detectados nos hidrolisados ácidos dos híbridos foram predominantemente monoméricos quando os tempos de reação foram maiores do que 40 min. No entanto, os híbridos H140 e H321 se diferenciaram do H89, pois apresentaram oligossacarídeos (DP>=2) nos hidrolisados obtidos em tempos de reação entre 20 e 30 min. Os rendimentos de conversão enzimática da glucana contida nos sólidos pré-tratados aumentaram substancialmente após o pré-tratamento ácido (principalmente devido à remoção de hemicelulose). No entanto, as conversões máximas de glucana em glicose não ultrapassaram 65%. A deslignificação parcial das amostras pré-tratadas com ácido (90 min), empregando soluções de clorito de sódio/ácido acético, permitiu aumentar a conversão enzimática de glucanas até valores próximos a 100%. De forma geral, o pré-tratamento ácido e a subsequente deslignificação proporcionaram maiores ganhos de conversão enzimática àqueles híbridos inicialmente mais recalcitrantes (H321 e H140). Os rendimentos de pré-tratamento (ácido diluído e clorito-ácido) e da conversão enzimática demonstraram que a maior obtenção de glicose por área plantada (Kg/hectare) ou por material processado (Kg/ton material) seria alcançada com a utilização dos híbridos H89 e H321, respectivamente. A investigação das características microestruturais das paredes celulares dos híbridos permitiu compreender como as etapas de tratamento químico afetaram a conversão enzimática da glucana. O pré-tratamento ácido diminuiu substancialmente o volume total de poros dos três híbridos, enquanto a subsequente deslignificação não retornou a porosidade aos níveis originalmente detectados nas amostras não tratadas. Por outro lado, a área superficial acessível de glucana dos substratos apresentou relação direta com os rendimentos de conversão enzimática da glucana à glicose (R2=0,92). A compilação dos dados analíticos, aliada às determinações de glucana acessível, permitiu propor um parâmetro empírico (relação do teor de glucana com a soma de hemicelulose+lignina+extraíveis), útil para predizer os níveis de conversão enzimática de glucana nas amostras estudadas. / This study evaluated the performance of three sugarcane hybrids, contrasting for lignin and hemicellulose contents, under dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment and subsequent enzymatic conversion of glucan to glucose. The hybrids 89, 140 and 321 (H89, H140, and H321) were pretreated at different reaction conditions: 150 °C; 13 g sulfuric acid/100 g material; and reaction time ranging from 20 to 90 min. Residual solid yields gradually decreased according to increasing of pretreatment severity. H89 showed the lowest yields compared to the H140 and H321 hybrids, due to the highest solubilization of all the three structural components. Hemicellulose was the major cell wall component removed by the acid pretreatment. Furthermore, acid pretreatment modified the molar ratio of the initial hemicellulose constituents (xylose, arabinose and acetic acid), resulting in less branched structures. Lignin (between 21% and 31%, depending on the hybrid) and glucan (between 4% and 15%, depending on the hybrid) removal were also observed during the pretreatment. Carbohydrates in liquid hydrolysates were predominantly detected as monomers at reaction times greater than 40 min. However, H140 and H321 hybrids differed from H89, since they presented oligosaccharides (DP>=2) in the hydrolysates obtained at short reaction time (20 and 30 min). Enzymatic conversion of glucan from pretreated solids was substantially increased after the acid pretreatment (mainly due to the hemicellulose removal). Nevertheless, maximum conversion of glucan to glucose did not exceed 65%. Partial delignification of the acid pretreated samples (90 min), employing sodium chlorite/acetic acid solutions, increased the enzymatic conversion of glucan to values near to 100%. In general, acid pretreatment and subsequent delignification provided higher gains of enzymatic conversion to the hybrids originally more recalcitrant (H321 and H140). The pretreatment (dilute acid and chlorite-acid) and enzymatic conversion yields demonstrated that to obtain higher amounts of glucose, taking into account the planted area (Kg/ha) or raw material processed (Kg/ton), would be achieved by using H89 and H321 hybrids, respectively. Analysis of the micro-structural features of the hybrids allowed understanding the effect of the chemical treatment step in the enzymatic conversion of glucan. Acid pretreatment significantly decreased the total pores volume of these hybrids, while the subsequent delignification do not returned the porosity to the original levels detected in raw samples. On the other hand, the accessible surface area of glucan showed a direct correlation with the enzymatic conversion levels of glucan to glucose (the model including several substrates presented R2=0.92). The compilation of analytical data, combined with the accessible glucan, allowed proposing an empirical parameter (ratio of the glucan content with the sum of hemicellulose+lignin+extractives), that was useful for predicting the enzymatic conversion levels of glucan for all the evaluated samples.

<p>The discovery and utilization of novel starches with unique superb properties are highly demanded for modern industrial uses. Small-granule starch (SGS) is a category of unconventional starches with the granular size smaller than 10 μm. The potential use of SGS includes many conventional and novel high-value applications, such as texturizing, fat replacement, encapsulation, controlled delivery and nano-engineering. In the present work, we focused on three SGS isolated from amaranth (<i>Amaranth cruentus</i>), cow cockle (<i>Saponaria vaccaria</i>) and sweet corn (<i>sugary-1</i> maize mutant). The basic structural and unique physical properties of SGS were characterized and compared to common large-granule food starches. It was found that (1) the highly branched amylopectin contributed to low crystallinity and pasting viscosities of sweet corn starch, (2) cow cockle starch exhibited high shear-resistance and low retrogradation in prolonged storage, and (3) the amylopectin for amaranth starch was less branched with small clusters, which was associated with the high crystallinity, medium shear-resistance and low pasting viscosity of amaranth starch. Despite the small size of starch granules, SGS in both native and swelling states showed the capacity of retaining small molecules. Compared to large-granule starch, native SGS are more difficult for small molecules to reach an equilibrium permeation. This work provides insights to the fine structure and physicochemical behaviors of selected high-potent SGS, which is believed to support the industrial production and application of SGS in the future.</p> <p>The characteristics of local polymeric structure dominate many critical properties of glucan particles, such as starch retrogradation and the loading and stabilizing of active substance. Molecular rotor (MR), a fluorescent probe, was proposed to fulfill the simple, high-sensitive, and quantitative-based characterization of local glucan architecture (LGA). In the present work, two innovative studies relevant to this novel method were conducted: (1) MR was able to characterize glucans based on its unique fluorescent response to characteristic LGA, (2) MR was able to sensitively probe and visually demonstrate the transition of LGA induced by starch retrogradation. This novel MR-based approach is expected to advance carbohydrate-related researches in the future.</p>

Fish oil is an excellent source of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), which can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in addition to other health benefits. However, the average intake of LC-PUFA in the Western diet is much lower than the recommended levels. Fish oil is prone to oxidative deterioration when exposed to oxygen and thus must be protected in order to be used in food products. Microencapsulation is one possibility that is already applied by the industry to protect fish oil. However, most of the conventional microencapsulation techniques suffer from shortcomings such as harsh processing conditions or the use of numerous chemicals. The main objective of this thesis was to develop a novel spray process to microencapsulate fish oil based on supercritical fluid (SCF) technology using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) and CO2-expanded ethanol (CX EtOH). Fundamental physicochemical properties essential for optimal process design were lacking in the literature; therefore, density, interfacial tension (IFT) and viscosity of fish oil in the form of triglycerides and fatty acid ethyl esters were determined at different temperatures and pressures. Fish oil when equilibrated with SC-CO2 at elevated pressure expanded by up to about 40% in volume and increased in density by up to about 5%. Furthermore, IFT of fish oil in contact with SC-CO2 decreased substantially by an order of magnitude with an increase in CO2 pressure. When fish oil was in contact with CX EtOH, IFT decreased to ultra low levels at pressures of less than 10 MPa. Viscosity of fish oil equilibrated with SC-CO2 decreased substantially with pressure but increased with shear rate. Based on the physicochemical properties determined in this research, a novel process to produce micro- and nano-sized particles containing fish oil was developed based on a SCF spray-drying method. Key processing parameters have been evaluated and can be further optimized to improve encapsulation efficiency. Determination of physicochemical properties contributed to the fundamental understanding of the behavior of the fish oil+CO2 system with and without ethanol under high pressure conditions. The new microencapsulation process shows great potential for the delivery of bioactives in various product applications. / Bioresource and Food Engineering

Résumé : Chez lorge, la dégradation des polysaccarides des parois cellulaires et de lamidon est de première importance dans le contexte de sa valorisation brassicole. La présente recherche doctorale a été entreprise dans le but didentifier des marqueurs de sélection utilisables lors de lamélioration génétique de lorge de printemps pour ses qualités brassicoles. Des gènes candidats ont dabord été choisis sur base de leur expression dans les tissus de la graine en germination. Leur position cartographique a été déterminée et située par rapport à des marqueurs QTL connus de la qualité brassicole. Exploitant des variétés cultivées de qualités contrastées, une recherche de polymorphismes nucléotidiques au niveau de ces gènes a été réalisée. Tous les gènes savèrent polymorphes, certaines des variations de séquence conduisant à des modifications de la structure primaire de la protéine encodée. Plusieurs caractères technologiques ont été retenus et définis chez les variétés étudiées, en exploitant les données de la littérature : la teneur en extrait, la viscosité, la teneur en β-glucanes du mout, latténuation finale apparente et le pouvoir diastasique. Plusieurs caractères biochimiques ont été étudiés chez ces mêmes variétés et ont ciblé quatre activités enzymatiques impliquées dans la dégradation des polysaccharides pariétaux et de réserve. Le pouvoir discriminant et la simplicité du test dactivité amylase, ainsi que sa relation avec des critères technologiques importants, en font un test prometteur en vue de faciliter la sélection variétale. La relation entre les sites polymorphes de lADN et les caractères technologiques et biochimiques identifient une soixantaine de sites dont les polymorphismes semblent associés à au moins lun des caractères. Sur tous les sites polymorphes, treize sites sont choisis pour leur potentiel en tant que marqueurs de sélection. Ils distinguent en effet un allèle favorable et un allèle défavorable pour plus dun critère brassicole. Ces treize sites sont localisés sur des gènes de (1-3,1-4)-β-glucanase, un gène de (1-3)-β-glucanase, un gène de (1-4)-β-xylan endohydrolase et un gène dα-amylase. La mise en évidence de ces allèles peut être réalisée par des tests PCR simples (« allèles spécifiques ») et relativement peu coûteux, dont six ont été mis au point au terme de la recherche./ Summary: In barley, the degradation of cell wall polysaccharides and starch is of utmost importance for its malting quality. The aim of this thesis is the identification of selection markers useful in the breeding of spring Barley cultivars for improved malting quality. Candidate genes were first chosen based on their expression profile in tissues of germinating seeds. Their mapping positions were determined and compared with known QTLs for malting quality. Varieties with contrasted malting qualities were searched for DNA polymorphisms for each of these genes. All genes proved to be polymorphic, some of the sequence variations leading to changes in the primary structure of the encoded protein. Technological traits were chosen and used to characterize the varieties based on literature data: extract yield, viscosity, β-glucan content of the wort, final apparent attenuation and diastatic power. Biochemical traits were also investigated on the same varieties and focused on four enzyme activities implicated in cell wall polysaccharides and starch degradation. The Discriminant power and ease of the amylase test, as well as its relation with technological traits, make it a promising selection test in breeding programs. The relationship between the DNA polymorphisms and biochemical and technological traits reveals around sixty polymorphisms displaying apparent relationships with at least one trait. Thirteen out of them were chosen for their potential as selection markers. They are located on (1-3,1-4)-β-glucanase genes, on one (1-3)-β-glucanase gene, on one (1-4)-β-xylan endohydrolase gene and on one α-amylase gene. Detection of these alleles can be achieved by simple and inexpensive PCR tests ( allele specific), and six assay protocols have been set up at the completion of this research.

In einer Zeit, in der eine Zunahme von ernährungsbedingten Erkrankungen in steigendem Maße zu beobachten ist, wird dem Getreide als Grundlage der menschlichen Ernährung erhöhte Aufmerksamkeit gewidmet. Ein hoher Verzehr von Ballaststoffen ist ein wesentlicher Aspekt in der präventiv-medizinischen Ernährung. Die von der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Ernährung vorgeschlagene tägliche Ballaststoffzufuhr liegt bei 30 g. Die Aufnahme von Ballaststoffen ist jedoch in Deutschland deutlich unterhalb dieser empfohlenen Menge.<br><br> Getreideprodukte, besonders vom Vollkorntyp, sind die wichtigste Quelle für Ballaststoffe. Deshalb sollten im Rahmen dieser Arbeit direkt verzehrsfähige, Ballaststoff-angereicherte Haferprodukte (vorwiegend Extrudate) mit hohen Gehalten an b-Glucanen und resistenter Stärke hergestellt, analysiert und nachfolgend auf relevante ernährungsphysiologische Wirkungen geprüft werden. Als Basis für die Produkte wurden Hafermehl und Haferkleie eingesetzt.<br> Der erste Teil der Arbeit beschäftigte sich mit der Analyse der Haferprodukte. Diese wiesen eine hohe Wasserbindungskapazität auf. Bei den Untersuchungen am Tiermodell wurde gezeigt, dass im Dünndarm eine größere Menge an Wasser durch die Haferprodukte gebunden wurde, was zu einem höheren Feuchtigkeitsanteil der gastrointestinalen Inhalte der Tiere führte, die ballaststoffreiches Futter erhielten.<br><br> Trotz der hydrothermischen Behandlung während der Extrusion wurden Produkte gewonnen, deren β-Glucane im hochmolekularen Zustand erhalten blieben und somit eine hohe Viskosität in wässrigen Lösungen beibehielten. In rheologischen Untersuchungen wurde bestätigt, dass die aus Haferprodukten isolierten β-Glucane ein pseudoplastisches Fließverhalten besitzen. Demgegenüber führte ein Autoklavieren der Produkte zu einer starken Depolymerisation der b-Glucane, was sich in einer Änderung der funktionellen Eigenschaften der b-Glucane widerspiegelte.<br><br> Im Mittelpunkt der Untersuchungen standen ernährungsphysiologische In-vitro- und In-vivo-Experimente mit Extrudaten und Proben auf der Basis von Hafer, die einen erhöhten Anteil an Ballaststoffen, speziell an b-Glucan und an resistenter Stärke, besaßen und die direkt verzehrbar sind. Diese Haferprodukte zeigten eine Reihe von ernährungsphysiologisch vorteilhaften und protektiven Wirkungen in In-vitro-Experimenten. So traten sie mit Gallensäuren unter den Bedingungen des Dünndarms in Wechselwirkung und waren gut mit Faecesflora vom Menschen fermentierbar. Die In-vitro-Verdauung von Maisstärke durch Pankreatin, wurde durch die ballaststoffreichen Haferprodukte partiell gehemmt. Dieser Befund lässt eine Abschwächung des postprandialen Glukoseanstieges erwarten.<br><br> In einem sechswöchigen Fütterungsversuch erhielten Ratten Diäten, die zu 50 % aus ballaststoffreichen Haferprodukten bestanden. Diese Haferprodukte bewirkten einen erhöhten Transport von Gallensäuren und neutralen Sterolen in den unteren Intestinaltrakt sowie deren verstärkte Ausscheidung. Durch den Verzehr der ballaststoffreichen Haferprodukte kam es zu Veränderungen in der Mikroflora, wobei sich besonders die coliformen Keime verminderten und die Keimzahlen der Lactobacillen sowie die Bifidobakterien erhöhten. Die Fermentation der Ballaststoffe führte zur erhöhten Bildung von kurzkettigen Fettsäuren einschließlich von Butyrat. Die Bildung der kurzkettigen Fettsäuren geht mit einer pH-Wert-Absenkung im Caecum und Colon einher, die wiederum für eine geringere Bildung von sekundären Gallensäuren verantwortlich ist.<br><br> Die Ergebnisse des Fütterungsversuchs an Ratten wurden prinzipiell durch eine vierwöchige Pilotstudie am Menschen, in der Probanden täglich 100 g Haferextrudat erhielten, bestätigt. Das Extrudat wurde von den Probanden gut akzeptiert. In der 4. Woche wurden eine geringe Abnahme der Cholesterolfraktionen im Serum, höhere Keimzahlen für Lactobacillen, Bifidobacterien und Bacteroides, geringere pH-Werte und Trockenmassegehalte in den Faeces, eine Zunahme der individuellen und Gesamt-SCFA sowie des Butyratanteils in den Faeces, eine erhöhte Ausscheidung an Steroiden, eine Zunahme der primären Gallensäuren und eine Abnahme des prozentualen Anteils an sekundären Gallensäuren sowie der Cholesterol-Metaboliten gefunden. Diese Parameter gingen 2 Wochen nach Beendigung der Intervention mit dem Haferextrudat wieder in Richtung der Ausgangswerte (0. Woche) zurück.<br><br> Die untersuchten Haferprodukte erwiesen sich als gut fermentierbare Substrate für die intestinale Mikroflora und können deshalb als ein Präbiotikum mit Ballaststoffcharakter eingeschätzt werden. Diese Produkte, die mit einem erhöhten Anteil an resistenter Stärke und wertvollen Haferballaststoffen hergestellt wurden, können dazu beitragen, die Ballaststofflücke in unserer Ernährung zu schließen und positive ernährungsphysiologische Effekte zu bewirken. / Cereal products, particularly from whole grains, are the most important source of dietary fibre in the western diet. A high intake of dietary fibre, which is an essential component in nutrition, is positively related to several physiological and metabolic effects. However, the daily intake of dietary fibre is below the recommended levels (30d/day) in most industrials country. Oat (Avena sativa L.) products are well accepted in human nutrition. Oats is an excellent source of different dietary fibre types, such as β-glucan, arabinoxylans and cellulose, and it contains high levels of proteins, lipids, vitamins, antioxidants and minerals.<br> A series of extrudates was prepared from oat meal, oat bran and Novelose 330®, differing in concentrations of individual dietary fibre components, such as β-glucan and resistant starch, as well as total dietary fibre.<br><br> The cereal dietary fibre, β-glucan, has outstanding functional and nutritional properties, because of its viscosity in aqueous systems and in the intestinal tract. The rheological behaviour of β-glucan (concentrations: 2% and 4%) isolated from extruded oat meal and from oat bran was evaluated using oscillatory and rheological measurements. In frequency sweep, the storage and loss moduli G′ and G″ of β-glucan preparations from extruded meal and from bran increased continuously with increasing frequency, showing a dominantly viscous behaviour. With increasing frequency, the elastic properties improved.<br><br> After simulated digestion, the digested dietary fibre-rich oat-based extrudates were used to evaluate their physiological effects in vitro. A strong interaction occurred between the digested extrudates and bile acids. The binding of bile acids increased with increasing proportions of oat bran, total dietary fibre, insoluble dietary fibre and β-glucan in the extrudates. Dihydroxy-bile acid was more strongly bound to the extrudates than trihydroxy- bile acid. Interactions at pH 5.0 were greater than at pH 6.5. During fermentation of digested extrudates with human faecal samples, concentrations of short-chain fatty acid formed and the molar proportion of butyrate increased continuously. Higher short-chain fatty acid concentrations were found when extrudates contained more oat bran, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre and β-glucan. Extrudates, on the basis of oat, have several beneficial nutritional and protective effects in vitro. Therefore, physiological effects occurring in the small and large intestine are also related to the dietary fibre composition of the cereal products.<br><br> The results found in vitro was examined in feeding experiments with animal models and in nutritional studies with human subjects.<br><br> Male Wistar rats were fed either an oat-free diet (control group) or diet containing 50% oat-based products (test groups) for 6 week. In most of the test group, following effects were observed compared with control group: higher water intake; slightly decreased total and LDL cholesterol in serum; higher count of Bifidobacteria as well as lower count numbers of Coliforms; greater mass of cecum walls and cecal contents; lower pH values in intestinal contents; higher concentration of acetate, propionate and butyrate in cecal contents and greater excretion of short-chain fatty acids; significantly more total bile acids in cecal contents; higher excretion of total bile acids and primary bile acids; lower proportion of secondary bile acids as well as higher concentration of neutral sterols in cecal contents, colonic contents and feces.<br><br> In the human study 12 volunteers consumed 100 g fiber-rich oat-based product (to the habitually diet) daily for 4 week. Following results were observed in the week 4 compared with the beginning of the experiment: higher water intake; slightly decreased total cholesterol in serum; lower pH values in feces; higher concentration of acetate, propionate and butyrate in feces; higher excretion of total bile acids and primary bile acids; lower proportion of secondary bile acids as well as higher concentration of neutral sterols in feces.<br><br> In conclusion, application of the dietary fiber-rich oat-based diets had a variety of beneficial physiological and protective effects in rats and human depending on their composition and amount, their technological pre-treatment and their functional properties. The major effects connected whit fermentation of dietary fibre components and their high formation of short-chain fatty acids as well as with higher excretion of steroids.

To understand and modify the secondary cell walls of plants the project group Enzyme Discovery in Hybrid Aspen for Fiber Engineering (EDEN) was founded composed of nine laboratories with funding from the European Commission. The main target of EDEN´s research is to genetically engineer fiber structure in order to produce transgenic trees with modified properties for the pulp and paper industries. In this target framework, the Populus tremula x tremuloides xyloglucan endotransglycosylase (PttXET16A) was selected for in-depth study of its transglycosylase activity catalyzing cleavage and reconnection of xyloglucan molecules, which is proposed to be involved in secondary cell wall morphogenesis. The creation of a family 16 carbohydrate active enzyme &#61538;-glucanase/XET hybrids were attempted in order to design a chimeric enzyme with one or more of the following altered properties: specificity, activity, and or stability. The two enzymes, Bacillus licheniformis 1,3-1,4-&#61538;-glucanase and Populus tremula x tremuloides xyloglucan endotransglycosylase, are members of the same enzymatic family and have highly homologous 3-dimensional structures. However, the enzymes exhibit different activities, one a hydrolase the other a transferase; different specificities, one accepts only linear glcosydic substrates while the other branched substrates; and different stabilities. Hybrid enzyme construction represented an investigational challenge in order to understand what physical characteristics of both enzymes attribute to the specific pattern of activity and specificity observed.Removal of the 1,3-1,4-&#61538;-glucanase major loop resulted in a folded protein which still maintained some &#946;-glucan hydrolase activity. However, no xyloglucan endotransglycosylase-like activity or specificity was observed. Next, point mutations of the &#946;-sheets forming the enzymatic binding site cleft were mutated to resemble PttXET16A residues. The final chimeric protein neither exhibited XET nor &#946;-glucanase activities. Structural analysis by X-ray crystallography revealed a major unexpected structural rearrangement providing a clear insight for further enzyme engineering. / Amb la finalitat d'entendre i modificar la paret cel·lular secundària de les plantes, es va fundar el grup Enzyme Discovery in Hibrid Aspen for Fibern Engineering (EDEN) composat per nou laboratoris amb la finançament de la Comissió Europea. El principal objectiu de la recerca del grup EDEN és enginyar genèticament l'estructura de fibres per tal de produir arbres transgènics amb propietats modificades per les indústries de la polpa i el paper.En el marc d'aquest projecte, es va seleccionar el Populus tremula x tremuloides xiloglucà endotransglicosilasa (PttXET16A) per estudiar en profunditat la seva activitat transglicosilasa catalitzant el trencament i la reconnexió de molècules de xiloglucà, el qual sembla estar involucrat en la morfogènesi de la paret cel·lular secundària. D'aquesta manera, s'intentà crear una família 16 d'híbrids de l'enzim actiu amb carbohidrats &#61538;-glucanasa/XET per tal de dissenyar un enzim quimèric amb una o més de les propietats següents alterades: especificitat, activitat i/o estabilitat.Els dos enzims, Bacillus licheniformis 1,3-1,4-&#61538;-glucanasa i Populus tremula x tremuloides xiloglucà endotransglicosilasa, són membres de la mateixa família enzimàtica i tenen una gran homologia en les seves estructures en 3-dimensions. Tot i així, aquests enzims presenten diferents activitats, un presenta activitat hidrolasa i l'altre, transferasa; diferents especificitats, un accepta només substrats glicosílics lineals mentre l'altre, substrats ramificats; i diferents estabilitats. La construcció d'un enzim híbrid representa un repte en la investigació amb la finalitat d'entendre quines característiques físiques dels dos enzims s'atribueixen al model específic de l'activitat i especificitat observada.L'extracció del llaç més gran de l'1,3-1,4-&#61538;-glucanasa va resultar en l'obtenció d'una proteïna plegada que encara manté certa activitat hidrolasa del &#61538;-glucà. Tot i això, no s'observà activitat o especificitat similar a la xiloglucà endotransglicosilasa. A partir d'aquí, es realitzaren mutacions puntuals a diferents punts de les fulles &#61538; que formen l'escletxa del lloc d'unió de l'enzim per assemblar-se als residus del PttXET16A. La proteïna quimèrica final tampoc presentava activitat XET ni &#61538;-glucanasa. L'anàlisi de l'estructura per cristal·lografia de raigs X revelà una major reorganització estructural de l'esperada proveint el nou enzim d'un clar espai intern que obra moltes més portes a l'enginyeria de l'enzim. / Con la finalidad de entender y modificar la pared celular secundaria de las plantas, se fundó el grupo Enzyme Discovery in Hibrid Aspen for Fibern Engineering (EDEN) compuesto por nueve laboratorios con la financiación de la Comisión Europea. El principal objetivo de la búsqueda del grupo EDEN es ingeniar genéticamente la estructura de fibras para producir árboles transgénicos con propiedades modificadas para las industrias de la pulpa y el papel. En el marco de este proyecto, se seleccionó el Populus tremula x tremuloides xiloglucán endotransglicosilasa (PttXET16A) para estudiar en profundidad su actividad transglicosilasa catalizando la rotura y la reconnexión de moléculas de xiloglucán, el cual parece estar involucrado en la morfogénesis de la pared celular secundaria. De esta forma, se intentó crear una familia 16 de híbridos de la enzima activa con carbohidratos &#61538;-glucanasa/XET con la finalidad de diseñar una enzima quimérica con una o más de las propiedades siguientes alteradas: especificidad, actividad y/o estabilidad. Las dos enzimas, Bacillus licheniformis 1,3-1,4-&#61538;-glucanasa y Populus tremula x tremuloides xiloglucà endotransglicosilasa, son miembros de la misma familia enzimática y tienen una gran homología en sus estructuras en 3-dimensiones. Aún así, estas enzimas presentan diferentes actividades, una tiene actividad hidrolasa y la otra, transferasa; diferentes especificidades, una acepta sólo sustratos glicosílicos lineales mientras la otra, sustratos ramificados; y diferentes estabilidades. La construcción de una enzima híbrida representa un reto dentro de la investigación con la finalidad de entender qué características físicas de las dos enzimas se atribuyen al modelo específico de la actividad y especificidad observada. La extracción del lazo más grande de la 1,3-1,4-&#61538;-glucanasa resultó en la obtención de una proteína plegada que todavía mantiene cierta actividad hidrolasa del &#61538;-glucán. Aún así, no se observó actividad o especificidad similar a la xiloglucán endotransglicosilasa. A partir de este punto, se realizaron mutaciones puntuales a diferentes puntos de las hojas &#61538; que forman la brecha del lugar de unión de la enzima por asemejarse a los residuos del PttXET16A. La proteína quimérica final tampoco presentaba actividad XET ni &#61538;-glucanasa. El análisis de la estructura por cristalografía de rayos X reveló una mayor reorganización estructural de la esperada proveyendo la nueva enzima de un claro espacio interno que obre muchas más puertas a la ingeniería de la enzima.

Three series of studies were conducted to quantify the effectiveness of dietary incorporation of b-1,3-glucan (BG) from Schizophyllum commune in enhancing the immunity and resistance of grass prawn Penaeus monodon to vibriosis and white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) infections. In the first series of studies, three experiments were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of dietary b-1,3-glucan on shrimp growth and resistance to vibriosis. Weight gain, survival and feed efficiency of juvenile shrimp (0.5 ¡Ó 0.1 g) were not significantly different (P>0.05) after being fed the diets containing BG 0, 0.2, 2, 10 g/kg diet for 18 weeks. Subadult shrimp (20.4 ¡Ó 2.1 g) fed the diet containing of BG 2 g/kg diet for 10 days showed a significantly (P<0.001) enhanced resistance against vibriosis. Postlarvae fed with the BG diet (2 g/kg diet) were more resistant (P<0.001) against starvation and V. harveyi challenges than the postlarvae fed non-BG diet. Additive disease resistance was observed when polyphosphorylated L-ascorbic acid (PAA) was used together with BG. In challenge tests with V. damsela, shrimp fed with PAA (0.2 g/kg diet) + BG (2 g/kg diet) diet for 20 days had a survival rate up to 60%. In the second series of studies, two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of dietary b-1,3-glucan on wound healing and immunity in spawners. Dietary supplement of BG reduced the chance of infections, but did not help wound healing as did the supplement of PAA. And regardless of indoor or outdoor rearing, the survival rate of brooder (135 ¡Ó 25 g) fed the BG (2 g/kg diet) diet was higher (P<0.001) than that of the non-BG group. Fed the BG brooders showed enhanced haemocyte phagocytic activity, cell adhesion and superoxide anion production then the control group. Third series of studies evaluated the effectiveness against white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). Six days after being challenged with WSSV, 12.2 % of the BG-treated (2 g/kg diet for 15 days) postlarvae (PL15) and 20 % BG-treated (2 g/kg diet for 20 days) juveniles (5.5 ¡Ó 0.5 g) were still alive; while all non-BG-treated shrimp died. In order to quantify the effectiveness of BG to WSSV, juveniles (6.5 ¡Ó 0.4 g) were fed diets containing graded levels of BG. The results showed that shrimp fed the diet containing BG 10 g/kg for 20 days had the highest (P<0.001) survival rate (42 %) among all groups. Shrimp that received diets supplemented with BG at a dosage >2 g/kg recuperated 9 ~ 12 days after WSSV challenge; while the group fed diets with no or 1 g/kg BG suffered from rapid decrease in total haemocyte count, phagocytic activity, phenoloxidase, O2-, superoxide dismutase (SOD) production and subsequent high mortality. The results in this study showed that b-1,3-glucan is effective in enhancing the phagocytic activity, phenoloxidase, O2- and SOD productions and consequently the resistance of postlarval, juvenile, subadult and brooder P. monodon against vibriosis and viral infections. Since prolonged use of BG, even at optimal dietary levels, decreased the immunity of the shrimp, care therefore must be taken to maximize its effectiveness. A cycle of dietary BG supplement of 2 ~ 10 g/kg diet for 20 days with an intermission of 10 days may serve the purposes.