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No description available.

.Les récepteurs AMPA, NMDA et mGluR5 sont responsables de la majeure partie des courants excitateurs dans la transmission synaptique glutamatergique. Le contrôle de la dynamique et de l’organisation de ces récepteurs dans la synapse, via une combinaison de diffusion latérale et d’endo/exocytose, est essentiel à la régulation de l’intensité de la transmission synaptique. Les protéines de la densité post-synaptique, telles que Homer, Shank et GKAP, régulent la diffusion de ces derniers, contrôlent leur nombre et leur organisation à la post-synapse. Mon travail de thèse a consisté à étudier la co-organisation nanoscopique des récepteurs AMPA, NMDA et mGluR5 à la post-synapse. Dans un premier temps, grâce au développement de différents outils méthodologiques, j’ai caractérisé les propriétés individuelles d’organisation et de dynamique des récepteurs glutamatergiques, ainsi que leurs propriétés de co-organisation au sein de la post-synapse. Dans un second temps, j’ai cherché à explorer l’impact d’une modification structurelle de la densité post-synaptique sur leur nano-organisation. L’utilisation d’un modèle de troubles du spectre autistique, basé sur la variation d’expression de la protéine d’échafaudage Shank3, a permis d’étudier la désorganisation fonctionnelle des récepteurs au glutamate induite par une perturbation structurelle de la densité post-synaptique. Mes travaux démontrent une organisation clusterisée des récepteurs AMPA et NMDA à la post-synapse, et une distribution homogène des mGluR5 à leur périphérie. Les nanodomaines des AMPARs et des NMDARs ne sont pas co-localisés mais co-organisés, avec une tendance pour les NMDARs à occuper une place centrale dans la post-synapse. Les propriétés individuelles d’organisation des récepteurs AMPA ne sont pas affectées par une variation d’expression de la protéine Shank3, alors que les NMDARs et les mGluR5 voient leurs pools synaptiques affectés dans ce modèle de troubles du spectre autistique. Ces résultats apportent de nouveaux éléments de compréhension des bases moléculaires de la transmission synaptique glutamatergique en conditions physiologique et pathologique, et proposent une nouvelle vision de l’utilisation du glutamate par les synapses. / AMPA, NMDA and mGluR5 receptors are responsible of the majority of excitatory currents in glutamatergic synaptic transmission. Controlling the organization and the mobility of these receptors in the synapse, via a combination of lateral diffusion and endo/exocytosis, is essential for the regulation of synaptic transmission intensity. The proteins of the post-synaptic density, such as Homer, Shank and GKAP, regulate the diffusion of these receptors and control their number and organization at the post-synapse. My PhD work consisted of studying the nanoscale organization of AMPA, NMDA and mGluR5 receptors at the post-synapse. As a first step, thanks to the development of different methodological tools, I characterized the organization and dynamic properties of glutamatergic receptors, together with their co-organization within the post-synapse. As a second step, I explored the impact of structural modification of the post-synaptic density on the nano-organization of these receptors. The use of a model of autism spectrum disorder, based on a variation of the scaffold protein Shank3, enabled the study of functional disorganization of glutamate receptors induced by a structural disturbance of the post-synaptic density. This work shows a clustered organization of AMPA and NMDA receptors at the post-synapse, and a homogenous distribution of mGluR5 at their periphery. The AMPARs and NMDARs nanodomains are not co-localized but co-organized, with a tendency for the NMDARs to occupy a central place at the post-synapse. The individual organizational properties of AMPA receptors are not affected by the variation of Shank3 expression, whereas NMDARs and mGluR5 see their synaptic pool affected in this model of autism spectrum disorder. These results provide new evidence on the molecular bases of glutamatergic synaptic transmission in physiological and pathological conditions and propose a new vision of the use of glutamate by synapses.

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Repeated stress has been reported to cause reversible impairment to the hippocampus. Glutamatergic and cholinergic systems were proposed to be involved in responses seen after exposure to stress and cholinesterase inhibitors. Effects of concurrent exposure to repeated stress and chlorpyrifos (CPF) on concentrations of excitatory amino acids, activities of cholinergic enzymes, and maximum binding density (Bmax) and equilibrium dissociation rate constant (Kd) of NMDA and total muscarinic receptors were studied in Long-Evans rats. The study was divided into 4 experiments. The first experiment was to find the dose of CPF to use for studies on the interaction of stress and CPF. From the results obtained, 60% of the maximum tolerated dose was chosen. An experiment to determine effects of repeated stress and CPF on cholinergic enzymes and glutamate included groups of rats (n=7-8) that were handled 5 days/week; restrained 1 hour/day for 5 days/week; swum 30 minutes for 1 day/week; or restrained 4 days/week and swum for 1 day/week, for 28 days. On day 24, each group was injected either with corn oil or CPF 160 mg/kg sc 4 hours after restraint. On day 28, blood samples were collected for acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. Brains were dissected into hippocampus (HP) and cerebral cortex (CC) to determine activities of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), carboxylesterase (Cbxy), and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), and glutamate and aspartate concentrations. CPF inhibited AChE activity in blood, CC and HP, but stress did not affect AChE activity. Repeated restraint with swim reduced Cbxy and CPF inhibited Cbxy. Restraint with swim had a statistical trend to increase concentrations of glutamate in the HP more than swim alone (p = 0.064); but CPF had no effect on glutamate in the HP. CPF decreased concentrations of elevated aspartate in the HP of rats that were restrained and swum. The results suggested that restraint with swim indirectly elevated acetylcholine in the CC, and tended to increase glutamate in the HP. The experiment designed to study the effects of concurrent exposure to stress and CPF on NMDA and total muscarinic receptors was designed similar to the previous study, except that endpoints were Bmax and Kd of NMDA and total muscarinic receptors in the HP and CC, and NMDA receptors in the hypothalamus (HT). Restrained rats had higher Kd of NMDA receptors in the HP than control and restrained with swim rats; however, Bmax was similar. CPF deceased Bmax and Kd of total muscarinic receptors in the CC of swum rats (237.64 &#177; 17.36 fmol/mg protein, 0.216 &#177; 0.023 nM) and CPF also decreased Bmax of total muscarinic receptors in the CC of restrained rats (229.08 &#177; 17.36 fmol/mg protein). There were no effects of stress, CPF, or interactions of stress and CPF on NMDA receptors in the CC or on total muscarinic receptors in the HP. In summary, CPF was capable of modulation of total muscarinic receptors of swum and restrained rats, suggesting that cholinergic transmission in the CC for cognition, sensory and motor activity may be modified. Furthermore, we examined effects of stress and CPF on concentrations of monoamines. Swim stress and CPF individually decreased concentrations of norepinephrine in the HP, whereas swim and restraint with swim decreased concentrations of norepinephrine but increased concentrations of DOPAC in the HT. Swim stress increased concentrations of dopamine in the HT more than control or restraint. CPF did not alter concentrations of norepinephrine, dopamine, or DOPAC in the HT. The interactions of repeated stress and CPF on serotonin approached significance in the HP (p = 0.06) and HT (p = 0.08). CPF increased serotonin concentrations in rats that were handled and restrained but not swum. CPF reduced the elevated concentrations of serotonin in restrained rats and restrained with swim rats (p < 0.05). Swim and restraint with swim were potential stress models that altered noradrenergic, dopaminergic, and serotonergic responses in the HT. In summary, repeated stressors had effects on glutamatergic, cholinergic, and monoamine systems. CPF had effects on cholinergic and monoamine systems but the interactions between stress and CPF were few. / Ph. D.

Le système de l’immunité innée cérébrale module le fonctionnement du cerveau et les processus comportementaux tout au long de la vie d'un individu. Parmi les différents protagonistes de ce système de l'immunité innée cérébrale, les cellules gliales jouent un rôle majeur notamment en régulant la synthèse de facteurs inflammatoires tels que les cytokines. Ces dernières, outre leur rôle dans la coordination de l'action des différents partenaires cellulaires de ce système, modifient l'activité neuronale. Lors d'un épisode inflammatoire, le système de l'immunité innée s'active et l'ensemble des signaux mis en place par les processus immunitaires est regroupé sous le terme de neuroinflammation. Plus particulièrement, les cytokines proinflammatoires et l’ATP libérés dans ce cadre ont été décrits comme étant capables de moduler la plasticité synaptique d'une part et les capacités d’apprentissages et de mémorisation d'autre part. Cependant, la compréhension de l’impact d’un épisode inflammatoire sur le système nerveux central et les capacités d’apprentissage n’est pas totale. Une cible potentielle de ces facteurs est le système de neurotransmission glutamatergique. En effet, les facteurs proinflammatoires peuvent augmenter ou diminuer l’expression ou l’activité de certaines sous-unités des récepteurs glutamatergiques. Mon objectif a été de déterminer dans quelle mesure la transmission glutamatergique est altérée en condition neuroinflammatoire et comment cela pouvait induire des altérations des capacités d’apprentissage chez le rongeur. Pour cela nous avons choisi comme tâche comportementale l’aversion gustative conditionnée, dont les mécanismes moléculaires nécessaire à sa mise en place sont connus et reposent sur la transmission glutamatergique dans une structure corticale particulière chez les rongeurs: le cortex insulaire. Notre étude visait à déterminer les mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires par lesquels une inflammation localisée à ce cortex peut induire des modifications comportementales et biochimiques. Nous avons pu montrer que l’infusion de lipopolysaccharide, un puissant agent inflammatoire, dans le cortex insulaire induisait une augmentation de l'aversion conditionnée. Ceci était corrélé à une augmentation d’expression des récepteurs AMPA au glutamate dans cette structure, plus particulièrement dans le compartiment synaptique. Nous avons également pu montrer que l’infusion de LPS dans le cortex insulaire induisait la synthèse et la libération de cytokines proinflammatoires localement, sans stimuler le système de l’immunité périphérique. Même si ces cytokines sont connues comme étant des agents modulateurs de la neurotransmission glutamatergique, leur infusion dans le cortex insulaire n’a pas reproduit dans notre cas les effets de l’infusion du LPS. Par contre, nous avons montré que l’ATP était impliqué dans les effets du LPS sur l’apprentissage aversif, puisque le blocage des récepteurs purinergiques dans le cortex insulaire a permis de reverser les effets du LPS sur l’acquisition de l’aversion gustative. En conclusion, nos résultats suggèrent qu'une inflammation localisée dans le cortex insulaire conduit à la libération et à l'action d’ATP sur les cellules gliales et/ou neuronales, aboutissant à une hausse de l’acquisition de l’aversion gustative conditionnée. / The cerebral innate immune system is activated under pathophysiological conditions and can consequently modulate brain functioning and cognitive processes. This modulation is exerted by signals produced by immune-like processes grouped under the term of neuroinflammation and involving neuro-glial communication within the brain. In particular, proinflammatory cytokines and ATP, all produced during this immune system activation have been directly linked to modulation of synaptic plasticity and/or learning and memory functions in animals models. However, the cellular mechanisms by which neuroinflammation modulates neural plasticity and cognitive processes are still unclear. One candidate is the glutamatergic system. Indeed, pro-inflammatory factors can increase or decrease glutamatergic receptors expression and/or activity. Our study was dedicated at deciphering to what extent glutamatergic transmission is altered under neuroinflammation and how this may lead to learning and memory alteration. To this aim, we used the conditioned taste aversion, a task highly dependent on glutamatergic transmission into the insular cortex. Indeed, blockade of NMDA or AMPA receptors in this cortical area before acquisition greatly impairs conditioned taste aversion. The aim of our study was thus to investigate the behavioral and cellular impact of an inflammation restricted to the insular cortex on glutamatergic receptors expression and CTA memory formation. Here we show that a cortical inflammation, induced by LPS infusion into the insular cortex, prior to CTA acquisition enhances the aversion strength presumably through LPS-induced increase of glutamatergic AMPA, but not NMDA, receptor expression/trafficking at the insular synapses. Moreover, we show that ATP release, but not pro-inflammatory cytokines, is responsible for LPS-induced CTA enhancement. In conclusion we propose that inflammation restricted to the insular cortex enhances CTA acquisition through an ATP-dependent mechanism presumably involving an increase of glutamatergic AMPA receptor expression at the neuronal synapses.

Au vu de la relative inefficacité des traitements actuels de la douleur cancéreuse osseuse (DCO) il est devenu nécessaire aujourd'hui d'identifier de nouvelles cibles (cellulaires et/ou moléculaires) pour développer de nouveaux outils thérapeutiques. Dans ce contexte, ces dernières années, de nombreuses études ont suggéré que les cellules gliales, principalement les astrocytes et la microglie, pourraient contribuer au développement et au maintien de la douleur chronique. D'autre part, dans des modèles d'études précliniques de la DCO, plusieurs auteurs ont récemment constaté une réactivité astrocytaire importante dans les cornes dorsales de la moelle épinière et ont montré que, si on empêche cette réactivité, les symptômes douloureux sont diminués. Cependant, la relation exacte existant entre la réactivité des cellules gliales et les symptômes douloureux en condition de DCO est inconnue. Afin de décrypter cette relation, nous avons dans un premier temps étudié le décours temporel des comportements douloureux et caractérisé l’état de sensibilisation centrale dans un modèle de DCO chez le rat induit par l'injection de cellules de carcinome glandulaire mammaire (MRMT-1) dans le tibia. Nous montrons par des approches radiologiques, comportementales (tests de douleur évoquée et de distribution pondérale dynamique) et immunohistochimiques (immunodétection de la protéine Fos après palpation non douloureuse de la patte) que les animaux cancéreux MRMT développent graduellement une tumeur osseuse (premiers signes au 10ème jour post-inoculation), une allodynie et une hyperalgésie mécaniques (à partir du 10ème jour) et thermiques (à partir du 14ème jour), un inconfort de la patte injectée (à partir du 14ème jour ) et des phénomènes de sensibilisation centrale. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons recherché des indices structuraux et fonctionnels de réactivité gliale spinale dans notre modèle de DCO. L'objectif était donc de dater l'apparition de la réactivité gliale, et de déterminer la nature des cellules gliales impliquées : microglie et/ou astrocytes. Nous montrons par des approches immunohistochimiques qu’aucun signe morphologique de réactivité astrocytaire ni microgliale n’est observable pendant l’établissement et le maintien de la DCO alors que ces signes existent dans un modèle de douleur neuropathique (ligature de nerfs spinaux). De plus, par des approches moléculaire (qRT-PCR) et biochimique (technique du Bio-Plex) nous montrons que, parmi les 20 marqueurs structuraux et fonctionnels de réactivité gliale testés, seule l’expression de l’aquaporine 4 (un canal à eau spécifique des astrocytes) est significativement augmentée en condition de DCO. Nos résultats suggèrent donc que les astrocytes et les cellules microgliales jouent des rôles différents dans la douleur cancéreuse et dans la douleur neuropathique. Enfin, dans un troisième temps, nous avons cherché à mettre en évidence une implication des astrocytes dans la pathologie DCO au travers d’une caractérisation des transmissions glutamatergique et glycinergique, qui sont toutes deux fortement modulées par l’environnement astrocytaire. Par la quantification de l’expression de l’ARNm (qRT-PCR) et par dosage des taux d’acides aminés (électrophorèse capillaire), nous montrons que les principaux acteurs (transporteurs, récepteurs, agonistes et co-agonistes) de la transmission glutamatergique et glycinergique spinale ne subissent pas d’altération significative en condition de DCO. En conclusion, nous montrons que des symptômes douloureux chroniques peuvent se développer et se maintenir (1) sans signe d’astrogliose et de réactivité microgliale spinale ; et (2) sans altération de l’expression des principaux acteurs de la transmission spinale glutamatergique et glycinergique. Nos résultats invitent donc à revoir le lien très fort qui est fait actuellement entre douleur chronique et astrogliose. / The relative lack of efficiency of current treatments used to relieve bone cancer pain prompts to the identification of new molecular and/or cellular targets for the development of new therapeutic strategies. In that context, a large number of recent studies have suggested the involvement of glial cells, among which astrocytes and microglial cells, in the onset and maintenance of chronic pain symptoms. In few animal models of bone cancer pain, several authors have recently evidenced an increased glial reactivity in spinal cord dorsal horn, and demonstrated that preventing astrocytic reactivity was sufficient to reduce pain symptoms in these models. However, the exact relationship of glial reactivity with bone cancer pain symptoms remains poorly understood. In order to decipher this link, we have first studied the temporal development of pain symptoms, and characterized the degree of central sensitization in a rat model of bone cancer pain induced by the injection of mammary gland carcinoma cells (MRMT-1) in the tibial bone. Using radiologic assessment of tumor development, behavioral measurements to quantify evoked (von Frey hairs) and spontaneous (dynamic weight bearing) pain and immunodetection of Fos after non nociceptive palpation of cancer bearing limb, we demonstrate that animals injected with MRMT-1 cells gradually develop a bone tumor (first detectable 10 days after inoculation), a mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia (first noticeable at day 10), and later on a thermal allodynia and hyperalgesia (first detectable at day 14) as well as discomfort of the injected limb (day 14) and finally central sensitization phenomenons. Second, we have investigated the presence of structural and functional markers of spinal glial reactivity in our model of bone cancer pain. Our objectives were to date the onset of spinal glial reactivity, for microglial and astrocytic cells. Using immunohistochemical approaches, we show that none of the classical markers of astrocytic and microglial reactivity can be observed during the onset and the persistent phase of bone cancer pain whereas the markerswere easily identified in a neuropathic pain model (spinal nerve ligation). Furthermore, using molecular (qRT-PCR) as well as biochemical (Bio-Plex) approaches, we show that among the 20 structural and functional markers of glial reactivity tested, only aquaporin-4 displays increased mRNA levels in bone cancer pain model. Hence, our results suggest that astrocytes and microglial cells play different roles in bone cancer and neuropathic pain. Finally, we tried to evidence the involvement of astrocytes in bone cancer pain by characterizing glutamatergic and glycinergic synaptic transmission, both of which are heavily modulated by astrocytic environment. By quantifying mRNA levels (qRT-PCR) and measuring the level of inhibitory and excitatory amino acids (capillary electrophoresis), we show that the main actors (transporters, receptors, agonists and co-agonists) of glutamatergic and glycinergic transmissions in the spinal cord do not undergo any significant alteration in bone cancer pain conditions. We conclude that chronic painful symptoms may develop and persist (1) without any sign of astrogliosis or enhanced microglial reactivity in the spinal cord, and (2) without any alteration in the expression/levels of the main actors involved in glutamatergic and glycinergic transmission. These results therefore question the strong link that is frequently made between astrogliosis and chronic pain.

A evolução da vida na terra foi possível graças ao desenvolvimento de mecanismos temporais precisos capazes de ajustar processos fisiológicos que ocorriam no interior do organismo com os ciclos ambientais, promovendo assim, ganhos na capacidade adaptativa e comportamental desses indivíduos. A retina exerce função de suma importância nesse processo através da percepção da informação fótica que possibilita o ajuste dos ritmos circadianos. Nesse tecido, o glutamato apresenta um importante papel tanto na transmissão da informação fótica direcionada ao processo de formação de imagem quanto nos ajustes dos relógios biológicos. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar como o glutamato, aplicado por períodos diferentes (6 e 12h), é capaz de modular a expressão dos genes de relógio na retina de Gallus gallus. Através de diferentes protocolos que envolveram a administração de glutamato na concentração de 100&mu;M por 6 e 12 horas e em diferentes repetições (1 e 3 pulsos) avaliou-se através de PCR quantitativo a expressão dos genes Clock, Per2 e Bmal1. Os diferentes genes de relógio na retina de Gallus gallus apresentam diferentes respostas frente às trocas de meio e frente ao tratamento com o glutamato. O gene Clock responde com ativação da transcrição para ambos os tratamentos, de forma dependente da repetição dos estímulos. Já para o gene Per2 o tratamento com glutamato impõe uma oscilação de expressão com um ritmo ultradiano, enquanto que as trocas de meio não determinam alterações na transcrição. A expressão do gene Bmal1 não é afetada nem por trocas de meio, nem por glutamato. Novos estudos devem ser fomentados no sentido de se elucidar as vias pelas quais o glutamato leva ao perfil de oscilação observado e qual o mecanismo pelo qual a repetição de trocas de meio atua como sinalizador para o estabelecimento da sincronização celular / The evolution of life on earth was possible thanks to the development of precise temporal mechanisms to adjust physiological processes to environmental cycles, thus promoting gains in the individual adaptive and behavioral ability. The retina plays a very important role of paramount importance in this process through the perception of photic information that allows the adjustment of circadian rhythms. In this tissue, glutamate functions in the transmission of photic information directed to both image formation and biological clock entrainment. The aim of this study was to evaluate how glutamate, applied for different periods (6 and 12h), is able to modulate the expression of the clock genes in the retina of Gallus gallus. Using different protocols involving the administration of 100&mu;M glutamate for 6 and 12 hours and with different repetitions (1 and 3 pulses) the expression of Clock, Per2 and Bmal1 genes was evaluated by quantitative PCR. Clock gene responds with activation of transcription to both treatments depending on the repetition of the stimulus. As for Per2 gene, glutamate treatment imposes an oscillation with an ultradian expression rhythm, whereas medium changes do not affect its transcription. The expression of Bmal1 gene is not affected by either medium changes or glutamate. Further studies should be encouraged in order to elucidate the pathways by which glutamate leads to observed oscillation profile, and which mechanism triggered by the repetition of medium changes acts as signal to establish cell synchronization

No description available.

NMDARs are indispensable for developmental plasticity in the mammalian brain, but their roles in vivo are difficult to ascertain as NMDAR-knockouts are lethal. To circumvent this problem, we utilized NR1-knockdown mice to examine plasticity at the calyx of Held-MNTB synapse in the auditory brainstem. Previous work shows NMDARs at this synapse are rapidly down-regulated following the onset of hearing (P12), leading to the hypothesis that transient NMDAR expression is indispensable for modulating functional and morphological remodelling during development. We tested this by performing electrophysiological recordings, fluorescence tracing in vitro, and auditory brainstem responses in vivo, and surprisingly found that reducing postsynaptic NMDARs appears to promote functional maturation via presynaptic mechanisms in the absence of morphological and acoustic transmission differences in the mature calyx. This suggests a novel role for NMDARs to function as an activity-dependent control for setting the pace of consolidation and maturation in the calyx of Held synapse.