O sistema olfatório de mamíferos é capaz de detectar milhares de substâncias químicas diferentes, mesmo em baixas concentrações. Um odorante disperso no ar pode se ligar a um receptor olfatório (OR) iniciando o processo de detecção. Os ORs são membros da super família de receptores acoplados a proteína G (GPCRs). Apesar de a via de transdução de sinal de odorantes estar bem descrita, pouco se sabe sobre os seus moduladores. Em 2005, nosso laboratório identificou RIC-8B como um possível fator de troca de nucleotídeos de guanina (GEF) que poderia amplificar a atividade da proteína G olfatória (Golf). No presente trabalho mostramos que RIC-8B é capaz de interagir com Gγ13. Procurando os outros componentes desse complexo identificamos Gβ1 como sendo a subunidade Gβ mais expressa no epitélio olfatório. Além disso, RIC-8B, Gαolf, Gβ1 e Gγ13 encontram-se concentrados nos cílios dos neurônios olfatórios e se co-localizam nesse compartimento celular. Nossos experimentos de co-imunoprecipitação mostram que RIC-8B interage mais fortemente com Gαolf, na presença de GDP do que na presença de GTP, como esperado para uma GEF. Curiosamente quando Gβ1 e Gβ13 estão presentes, RIC-8B e Gαolf co-imunoprecipitam igual, independente do nucleotídeo de guanina utilizado. Apesar de, na presença de Gβ1 e Gγ13, não observarmos dissociação física de RIC-8B e Gαolf com a mudança do estado de ativação, o efeito de RIC-8B na produção de AMPc não é afetada. Também mostramos que a quantidade de Gαolf, Gβ1 e Gγ13 presentes na membrana celular aumenta quando estas são co-transfectadas com RIC-8B em células de mamíferos. Nossos resultados apontam para um papel duplo da RIC-8B. Primeiro, RIC-8B poderia funcionar como uma chaperona auxiliando na formação e transporte do complexo heterotrimérico, Golf, em neurônios olfatórios. Em segundo lugar, RIC-8B também atuaria como uma GEF sobre Gαolf, aumentando a produção de AMPc e portanto amplificando a via de transdução de sinal de odorantes. Por fim, acreditamos que um possível papel para Gβ1 e Gγ13 nesse complexo seria funcionar como um andaime molecular, aproximando RIC-8B de seu alvo, Gαolf, potencializando ainda mais a atividade de GEF. / The mammalian olfactory system detects small amounts of thousands of different chemical compounds. Odorant perception starts when an odorant in the air binds to an olfactory receptor (OR). ORs belong to the super family of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Even though the odorant signaling pathway is well known, little is known about its modulators. In 2005, our lab identified RIC-8B as a putative guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) that is able to interact with the olfactory G-protein (Golf) and amplify its activity. Here we show that RIC-8B also interacts with Gγ13. We also found that Gβ1 is the Gβ subunit that is predominantly expressed in the olfactory epithelium. Furthermore, RIC-8B, Gαolf, Gβ1 and Gγ13 are highly concentrated in the cilia of olfactory neurons and co-localize in this cellular compartment. We also show that RIC-8B interaction with G&#945olf is stronger in the presence of GDP than GTP, as expected for a GEF. Curiously, in the presence of Gβ1 and Gγ13, RIC-8B and Gαolf remain associated, in the presence of both GDP or GTP, probably through an indirect interaction via Gβ1/Gγ13. We also showed that the amounts of Gαolf, Gβ1 and Gγ13 in the cell membrane increase if RIC-8B is cotransfected in the same cell. Our results suggest that RIC-8B plays two roles. First, it may act as a chaperone which assists in the assembly and trafficking of the G protein complex. Second, RIC-8B would also act as a GEF to increase Gαolf dependent cAMP production and thereby amplify odorant signal transduction. Lastly, we believe that Gβ1 and Gγ13 may act as a scaffold to position RIC-8B close to its target, Gαolf, further enhancing the GEF activity.

[Truncated abstract] G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) form one of the largest superfamilies of cell-surface receptors and respond to a vast range of stimuli including light, hormones and neurotransmitters. Although structurally similar, GPCRs are regulated by many diverse proteins, which allow the specific functions of each receptor to be carried out. This thesis focussed on two well-documented GPCRs, the thyrotropin releasing hormone receptor (TRHR) and gonadotrophin-releasing hormone receptor (GnRHR), which control the thyroid and reproductive endocrine pathways respectively. Although each of these anterior pituitary receptors is responsible for distinct physiological responses, both are integral to normal development and homeostasis. This thesis focused on three areas of GPCR regulation: ?-arrestin recruitment, transcription factor regulation and receptor up-regulation. The role of the cytoplasmic protein, ?-arrestin, has perhaps been previously underestimated in GPCR regulation, but it is now increasingly apparent that ?-arrestins not only inhibit further G-protein activation and assist in GPCR internalisation but also act as complex scaffolding platforms to mediate and amplify downstream signalling networks for hours after initial GPCR activation. It is therefore becoming increasingly important to be able to monitor such complexes in live cells over longer time-frames. ... Members of the E2F transcription family have been previously identified by this laboratory as potential GnRHR interacting proteins, via a yeast-2-hybrid screen and BRET. This thesis further investigated the role of E2F family members and demonstrates that a range of GPCRs are able to activate E2F transcriptional activity when stimulated by agonist. However, despite GnRHR displaying robust E2F transcriptional activation upon agonist stimulation, this did not result in any conclusive evidence for functional regulation, although it is possible E2F may modulate and assist in GnRHR trafficking. Furthermore it is apparent that E2F family members are highly redundant, as small effects in GnRHR binding and cell growth were only observed when protein levels of both E2F4 and E2F5 were altered. During the course of the investigation into the effect of E2F transcription on GPCR function, it was evident that long-term agonist stimulation of GnRHR had a profound effect on its expression. As this was explored further, it became clear that this agonist-induced up-regulation was both dose- and time-dependent. Furthermore, altering levels of intracellular calcium and receptor recycling/synthesis could modulate GnRHR up-regulation. In addition, an extremely sensitive CCD camera has been used for the first time to visualise the luciferase activity attributed to GnRHR up-regulation. Overall, this thesis demonstrates the complex nature of GPCR regulation. For the first time, long-term BRET analysis on ?-arrestin interactions with both classes of GPCRs has been examined in a variety of cellular formats. This has given valuable insights into the roles of phosphorylation and internalisation on ?-arrestin interaction. Additionally, this thesis has revealed that prolonged agonist exposure increases receptor expression levels, which has major implications for drug therapy regimes in the treatment of endocrine-related disorders and tumours.

La presente tesis "Modelling of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors and of their complexes with actual and potential antipsychotic drugs" tiene como objetivo de profundizar los conocimientos actuales sobre el mecanismo de acción de los fármacos antipsicóticos. En este proyecto de larga duración, se han construidos modelos computacionales de los receptores 5-HT2A y 5-HT2C, utilizando un nuevo protocolo de modelización basado sobre los datos experimentales de otras proteínas GPCR de la misma familia. Las estructuras 3D se han validado e utilizado en estudios de acoplamiento ligando-receptor, simulaciones de dinámica molecular, y estudios 3D-QSAR con el ligando natural (serotonina), un agonista inverso bien conocido (ketanserina) y una serie de butyrofenonas con afinidad para ambos subtipos receptoriales. Las metodologías directas e indirectas utilizadas, han permitido de comprender mejor los elementos claves que gobiernan el acoplamiento ligando - receptor, mediante la identificación de los residuos más involucrados en esta interacción, el rol de la quiralidad de los ligandos y también las posiciones alternativas de acoplamiento que algunos ligandos pueden asumir en el sitio de unión de los receptores.Los resultados son coherentes con los datos experimentales y su interpretación ha proporcionado información valiosa, difícilmente obtenible con la simple inspección visual de las estructuras de los ligandos y de los receptores. / This thesis "Modelling of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors and of their complexes with actual and potential antipsychotic drugs" has the objective of investigate the mechanism of action of antipsychotic drugs. During the development of this project, computational models of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors have been built, by means of a new modeling protocol based on experimental data from other GPCR of the same family. 3D structures have been validated by means of docking, molecular dynamic simulations and 3D-QSAR studies, using the natural ligand (serotonin), a well known inverse agonist (ketanserin) and a series of butyrophenones with affinity for both receptor subtypes. Direct and indirect methodologies have been applied, allowing a better comprehension of the key elements governing the ligand-receptor docking, thanks to the identification of the most important residues that stabilize such interaction, role of chirality and alternative positions within the binding site. The results are coherent with experimental data and its interpretation provided valuable information, not available at a simple visual inspection of ligand - receptor structures.

Les Récepteurs Couplés à un Canal Ionique (ICCRs) sont des canaux ioniques artificielscréés par fusion d'un Récepteur Couplé aux Protéines G (RCPG) au canal ionique Kir6.2. Dansce concept, le canal agit comme un rapporteur direct des changements conformationnels desRCPGs permettant de détecter par simple mesure de courant, la fixation d'agonistes etd'antagonistes proportionnellement à leur concentration.Le signal induit étant directement corrélé à l'activité du récepteur, indépendamment desvoies de signalisation des protéines G, nous avons exploité cet avantage pour étendre le champd'applications des ICCRs au cours de cette thèse. Nous avons développé quatre applications quisont: 1) la caractérisation fonctionnelle des RCPG optimisés pour la cristallisation par insertionde domaine du lysozyme du phage T4 dans la boucle ICL3; 2) la détection de la dépendance desRCPGs au cholestérol; 3) la détection de ligands dits "biaisés" pour faciliter leur criblage; et 4) lacartographie fonctionnelle des portes du canal Kir6.2 régulées par des protéines membranairesinteragissant par le domaine N-terminal. / Ion Channel-Coupled Receptors (ICCRs) are artificial ion channels created by the fusion of a Gprotein-coupled receptor to a Kir6.2 channel. In this concept, the channel acts a direct reporter ofthe conformational changes of the GPCRs, allowing the detection by simple current recordingsof agonists and antagonists binding in concentration-dependent manner.The signal being directly correlated to the receptor activity, independently of G protein signallingpathways, we exploited this advantage to extend the field of applications of ICCRs during thisthesis. We developed 4 applications: 1) the functional characterization of the optimized GPCRsfor crystallization by insertion of the T4 phage lysozyme domain in the ICL3 loop; 2) thedetection of a cholesterol-dependence of the GPCRs; 3) the detection of the so-called "biasedligands" to simplify their screening; and 4) the functional mapping of the Kir6.2 channel gatesunder control of membrane proteins interaction with the N-terminus domain.

O sistema olfatório de mamíferos é capaz de detectar milhares de substâncias químicas diferentes, mesmo em baixas concentrações. Um odorante disperso no ar pode se ligar a um receptor olfatório (OR) iniciando o processo de detecção. Os ORs são membros da super família de receptores acoplados a proteína G (GPCRs). Apesar de a via de transdução de sinal de odorantes estar bem descrita, pouco se sabe sobre os seus moduladores. Em 2005, nosso laboratório identificou RIC-8B como um possível fator de troca de nucleotídeos de guanina (GEF) que poderia amplificar a atividade da proteína G olfatória (Golf). No presente trabalho mostramos que RIC-8B é capaz de interagir com Gγ13. Procurando os outros componentes desse complexo identificamos Gβ1 como sendo a subunidade Gβ mais expressa no epitélio olfatório. Além disso, RIC-8B, Gαolf, Gβ1 e Gγ13 encontram-se concentrados nos cílios dos neurônios olfatórios e se co-localizam nesse compartimento celular. Nossos experimentos de co-imunoprecipitação mostram que RIC-8B interage mais fortemente com Gαolf, na presença de GDP do que na presença de GTP, como esperado para uma GEF. Curiosamente quando Gβ1 e Gβ13 estão presentes, RIC-8B e Gαolf co-imunoprecipitam igual, independente do nucleotídeo de guanina utilizado. Apesar de, na presença de Gβ1 e Gγ13, não observarmos dissociação física de RIC-8B e Gαolf com a mudança do estado de ativação, o efeito de RIC-8B na produção de AMPc não é afetada. Também mostramos que a quantidade de Gαolf, Gβ1 e Gγ13 presentes na membrana celular aumenta quando estas são co-transfectadas com RIC-8B em células de mamíferos. Nossos resultados apontam para um papel duplo da RIC-8B. Primeiro, RIC-8B poderia funcionar como uma chaperona auxiliando na formação e transporte do complexo heterotrimérico, Golf, em neurônios olfatórios. Em segundo lugar, RIC-8B também atuaria como uma GEF sobre Gαolf, aumentando a produção de AMPc e portanto amplificando a via de transdução de sinal de odorantes. Por fim, acreditamos que um possível papel para Gβ1 e Gγ13 nesse complexo seria funcionar como um andaime molecular, aproximando RIC-8B de seu alvo, Gαolf, potencializando ainda mais a atividade de GEF. / The mammalian olfactory system detects small amounts of thousands of different chemical compounds. Odorant perception starts when an odorant in the air binds to an olfactory receptor (OR). ORs belong to the super family of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Even though the odorant signaling pathway is well known, little is known about its modulators. In 2005, our lab identified RIC-8B as a putative guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) that is able to interact with the olfactory G-protein (Golf) and amplify its activity. Here we show that RIC-8B also interacts with Gγ13. We also found that Gβ1 is the Gβ subunit that is predominantly expressed in the olfactory epithelium. Furthermore, RIC-8B, Gαolf, Gβ1 and Gγ13 are highly concentrated in the cilia of olfactory neurons and co-localize in this cellular compartment. We also show that RIC-8B interaction with G&#945olf is stronger in the presence of GDP than GTP, as expected for a GEF. Curiously, in the presence of Gβ1 and Gγ13, RIC-8B and Gαolf remain associated, in the presence of both GDP or GTP, probably through an indirect interaction via Gβ1/Gγ13. We also showed that the amounts of Gαolf, Gβ1 and Gγ13 in the cell membrane increase if RIC-8B is cotransfected in the same cell. Our results suggest that RIC-8B plays two roles. First, it may act as a chaperone which assists in the assembly and trafficking of the G protein complex. Second, RIC-8B would also act as a GEF to increase Gαolf dependent cAMP production and thereby amplify odorant signal transduction. Lastly, we believe that Gβ1 and Gγ13 may act as a scaffold to position RIC-8B close to its target, Gαolf, further enhancing the GEF activity.

La mélatonine est une neurohormone, principalement synthétisée par la glande pinéale et exerçant ses fonctions physiologiques via ses deux récepteurs MT1 et MT2 couplés aux protéines G. Ces derniers sont principalement exprimés dans le cerveau, la rétine et plusieurs autres tissus périphériques pour réguler une grande variété de fonctions physiologiques telles que les rythmes circadiens et saisonniers, la physiologie de la rétine, l'homéostasie du glucose et les fonctions neuronales et immunitaires. Les récepteurs de la mélatonine modulent plusieurs voies de transduction de signaux intracellulaires et inhibent la production d'AMPc et de GMPc et activent les « Extracellular signal-Regulated Kinases » 1/2 (ERK1/2) et les canaux ioniques. Ce travail met l'accent sur le rôle central de la voie ERK1/2 dans la fonction des récepteurs de la mélatonine en définissant la ou les voies moléculaires impliquées et en étudiant les modifications de cette voie dans les conditions pathologiques. Dans l'article 1, nous décortiquons les voies moléculaires impliquées dans l'activation de la voie ERK1/2 par les récepteurs humains MT1 et MT2 dans des cellules HEK293, un modèle cellulaire pertinent. Nous montrons ainsi que les β-arrestines ne participent pas à l’activation d’ERK1/2 induite par les deux récepteurs. Alors que l'activation d'ERK1/2 par MT1 est exclusivement médiée par des protéines Gi/o en libérant leurs sous-unités Gβy, MT2 est strictement dépendante de l'activation coopérative des protéines Gi/o et Gq/11. Les deux récepteurs activent plus en aval la cascade PI3K/PKCζ/c-Raf/MEK/ERK, avec laquelle ils forment des méga-complexes de signalisation préformés. Le phénomène de coopérativité au niveau des protéines G a également été observé plus en aval au niveau des gènes cibles d’ERK1/2 mais pas pour la voie Gi/cAMP. Ce travail a permis de fournir la première description complète de la voie ERK activée par MT1 et MT2, de mettre en évidence des différences entre les deux récepteurs et décrire un nouveau modèle de coopérativité entre les protéines Gi/o et Gq/11.Les variants naturels d’un récepteur peuvent avoir des propriétés de signalisation et des fonctions physiologiques modifiées. L'évaluation fonctionnelle de tels variants associés à des maladies est extrêmement importante pour établir un lien entre la fonction modifiée et la maladie pour concevoir d’éventuelles nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques. Dans l'article 2, nous avons établi le profil de signalisation de 40 variants naturels du récepteur MT2 associés au diabète de type 2 (DT2). La voie ERK1/2 a été mesurée en suivant la phosphorylation d’ERK directement dans des lysats cellulaires avec la technologie alpha-screen. En résumé, l'article 2 a confirmé l'association générale entre la perte de fonction du récepteur MT2 et l'augmentation du risque de DT2 et a montré que la voie ERK1/2 ne fait pas partie des principales voies associées au DT2.La génération et l'agrégation des peptides amyloïdes bêta (Aβ) est le principal marqueur moléculaire de la maladie d'Alzheimer (MA). Chez les patients atteints de MA, les deux composants du système mélatoninergique, à savoir la production de mélatonine et la fonction des récepteurs de la mélatonine, sont nettement réduits. Cependant, les mécanismes moléculaires y participant ne sont pas encore bien compris. Dans l'article 3, nous démontrons que l'Aß abolit la synthèse de la mélatonine et diminue les fonctions de MT1 et MT2 telle que l'activation de la voie ERK1/2 par la mélatonine. Ce travail fournit une base mécanistique pour expliquer la diminution de la fonction du système mélatoninergique chez les patients atteints de la MA.En résumé, cette thèse fournit de nouvelles idées sur la façon dont les récepteurs humains de la mélatonine activent la voie ERK1/2 et comment cette activation est modifiée par Aβ dans le contexte de la MA et par des variants de MT2 associés au DT2. / The neurohormone melatonin, primarily synthesized by the pineal gland, exerts its physiological functions by two high-affinity G protein-coupled receptors: MT1 and MT2. Both are widely expressed in the brain, retina and several other peripheral tissues to regulate a wide variety of physiological function such as circadian and seasonal rhythms, retinal physiology, glucose homeostasis and neuronal and immune functions. Melatonin receptors modulate several intracellular signal transduction pathways and inhibit cAMP and cGMP production and activate extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) and ion channels. This work focuses on the central role of ERK1/2 signaling in melatonin receptor function by defining the molecular pathway(s) involved and by studying modifications of this pathway under disease conditions. In article 1, we decipher the molecular pathways involved in the activation of the ERK1/2 signaling cascade by human MT1 and MT2 receptors in HEK293 cells, a relevant cellular model system. We show that β-arrestins do not participate in ERK1/2 activation by both receptors. Whereas ERK1/2 activation by MT1 is exclusively mediated though Gi/o proteins by liberating Gβγ subunits, MT2 is strictly dependent on the cooperative activation of Gi/o and Gq/11 proteins. Both receptors activate further downstream the PI3K/PKCζ/c-Raf/MEK/ERK cascade, with which they are forming preformed mega-signaling complexes. G protein cooperativity was also observed further downstream on the ERK1/2 target gene level but not for the Gi/cAMP pathway. This work provides the first full description of the ERK signaling pathway activated by MT1 and MT2, highlights differences between the two receptors and describes a new cooperativity model between Gi/o and G/11 proteins.Naturally occurring receptor variants might have modified signal transduction properties and modified physiological functions. The functional assessment of disease-associated variants is therefore extremely important to establish a link between modified function and disease to eventually design new therapeutic strategies. In article 2, we established the ERK1/2 signaling profile of 40 natural MT2 variants associated with type 2 diabetes (T2D) by measuring ERK phosphorylation directly in cell lysates with the alpha-screen technology. Collectively, article 2 confirmed the general association between loss-of-function of MT2 and increased T2D risk and showed that the ERK1/2 pathway is not among those pathways primarily associated to T2D risk.Generation and aggregation of the amyloid-beta peptides (Aβ) is the main molecular hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In AD patients both components of the melatoninergic system, i.e. melatonin production and melatonin receptor function, are markedly reduced. However, the mechanistic basis for that is still poorly understood. In article 3, we demonstrate that Aβ abolishes melatonin synthesis and diminishes MT1- and MT2 functions such as the activation of the ERK1/2 pathway by melatonin. This work provides a mechanistic basis for the diminished responsiveness of the melatoninergic system in AD patients.Collectively, this thesis provides new insights on how human melatonin receptors promote ERK1/2 activation and how this activation is modified by Aβ in the context of AD and by MT2 variants associated with T2D.

When applied to drug discovery, modern computational systems can provide insight into the highly complex systems underlying drug activity and predict compounds or targets of interest. Many tools have been developed for computer aided drug discovery (CADD), focusing on small molecule ligands, protein targets, or both. The aim of this thesis is the improvement of CADD tools for describing small molecule properties and application of CADD to several stages of drug discovery regarding two targets for the treatment of obesity and related diseases: the neuropeptide Y4 receptor (Y4R) and the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R). In the first chapter, the major categories of CADD are outlined, including descriptions for many of the popular tools and examples where these tools have directly contributed to the discovery of new drugs. Following the introduction, several improvements for encoding stereochemistry and signed property distribution are introduced and tested in scenarios meant to simulate applications in virtual high-throughput screening. Y4R and MC4R are both class A G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) with endogenous peptide ligands that play critical roles in the signaling of satiety and energy metabolism. So far, no structures from either receptor family have been experimentally elucidated. CADD was combined with high-throughput screening (HTS) to discover the first small molecule positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of Y4R. Secondly, CADD techniques were used to model the interaction of Y4R and pancreatic polypeptide based on experimental results that elucidate specific binding contacts. Similar SB-CADD approaches were used to model the interaction of MC4R with its high affinity peptide agonist α-MSH. Due to its role in monogenic forms of obesity, these models were used to predict which residues directly participate in binding and correlate mutated residues with their potential role in the binding site.

<p>The neuromodulator dopamine signals through the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) to modulate central nervous system functions through diverse signal transduction pathways. D2R is a prominent target for drug treatments in disorders where dopamine function is aberrant, such as schizophrenia. D2R signals through distinct G protein and β-arrestin pathways and drugs that are functionally selective for these pathways could have improved therapeutic potential. How D2R signals through the two pathways is still not well defined, and efforts to elucidate these pathways have been hampered by the lack of adequate tools for assessing the contribution of each pathway independently. To address this, Evolutionary Trace was used to produce D2R mutants with strongly biased interactions for either G protein or β-arrestin. Additionally, various permutations of these mutants were used to identify critical determinants of D2R functional selectivity. D2R interactions with the two major downstream signal transducers were effectively dissociated and G protein signaling accounts for D2R canonical MAP kinase signaling cascade activation. Nevertheless, when expressed in mice, the β-arrestin biased D2R caused a significant potentiation of amphetamine-induced locomotion, while the G protein biased D2R had minimal effects. The mutant receptors generated here provide a new molecular tool set that enable a better definition of the individual roles of G protein and β-arrestin signaling in D2R pharmacology, neurobiology and associated pathologies.</p> / Dissertation

Le VIP (ou vasoactive intestinal peptide) est un neuropeptide actif au niveau du syst¨¨me nerveux central et p¨¦riph¨¦rique (syst¨¨mes cardiovasculaire, respiratoire, tractus gastro-intestinal¡­). Il agit sur ces tissus cibles par interaction avec les r¨¦cepteurs VPAC1 et VPAC2, pour lesquels il poss¨¨de une haute affinit¨¦. Ces r¨¦cepteurs appartiennent ¨¤ la classe II des r¨¦cepteurs ¨¤ 7 h¨¦lices transmembranaires coupl¨¦s aux prot¨¦ines G, distincte de celle des r¨¦cepteurs apparent¨¦s ¨¤ la rhodopsine. En r¨¦ponse au VIP, ils stimulent pr¨¦f¨¦rentiellement l'ad¨¦nylate cyclase. Seul le r¨¦cepteur VPAC1 est capable, lorsqu'il est exprim¨¦ ¨¤ haute concentration, d¡¯augmenter les concentrations de calcium intracellulaire : G*i participe ¨¤ cette interaction. L'exposition des deux r¨¦cepteurs au VIP n'aboutit pas seulement ¨¤ leur activation : elle induit une succession de m¨¦canismes cellulaires intrins¨¨ques responsables d'une diminution de la capacit¨¦ du r¨¦cepteur ¨¤ r¨¦pondre ¨¤ un agoniste : la d¨¦sensibilisation. Diff¨¦rents processus peuvent contribuer ¨¤ la d¨¦sensibilisation d¡¯un r¨¦cepteur : le d¨¦couplage du r¨¦cepteur de la prot¨¦ine G, la s¨¦questration du r¨¦cepteur, ou encore leur "down regulation", r¨¦sultat ¨¤ plus long terme de la perte d'une partie du pool total de r¨¦cepteurs. Les m¨¦canismes impliqu¨¦s d¨¦pendent du r¨¦cepteur consid¨¦r¨¦ et de l'¨¦quipement prot¨¦ique de la cellule. Il a ¨¦t¨¦ r¨¦cemment montr¨¦ que le r¨¦cepteur VPAC1 humain ¨¦tait phosphoryl¨¦ (en position S447) en r¨¦ponse ¨¤ l¡¯agoniste, que la ¦Â-arrestine ¨¦tait transloqu¨¦e ¨¤ la membrane plasmique et que l¡¯internalisation qui s¡¯en suivait induisait un ph¨¦nom¨¨ne dynamine-d¨¦pendant. Aucune information plus pr¨¦cise n¡¯est r¨¦f¨¦r¨¦e dans la litt¨¦rature. Ce travail de th¨¨se a donc consist¨¦ en une ¨¦tude plus approfondie de la phosphorylation, l¡¯internalisation et la r¨¦cup¨¦ration du r¨¦cepteur VPAC1 humain. Dans un premier temps, nous nous sommes consacr¨¦ ¨¤ l¡¯¨¦laboration d¡¯un anticorps monoclonal sp¨¦cifique anti-r¨¦cepteur afin de visualiser le r¨¦cepteur. Nous avons eu recours ¨¤ l¡¯immunisation g¨¦n¨¦tique qui consiste ¨¤ injecter l¡¯antig¨¨ne sous forme d¡¯ADN. Une majorit¨¦ des souris immunis¨¦es ont produit des anticorps. L¡¯une d¡¯entre-elle a permis de g¨¦n¨¦rer un anticorps monoclonal, lequel a ¨¦t¨¦ compl¨¨tement caract¨¦ris¨¦ : les r¨¦sultats obtenus par FACS montrent qu¡¯il est sp¨¦cifique, s¨¦lectif et que son ¨¦pitope est localis¨¦e au sein de l¡¯extr¨¦mit¨¦ amino-terminale du r¨¦cepteur (figure 1). Il n¡¯interf¨¨rent pas avec la liaison du ligand et ne modifie en rien l¡¯activation du r¨¦cepteur par celui-ci. Cet anticorps monoclonal ne permet pas de d¨¦tecter le r¨¦cepteur par Western Blott, mais est capable de l¡¯immunopr¨¦cipiter. Dans un second temps, nous avons abord¨¦ l¡¯¨¦tude de la phosphorylation, de l¡¯internalisation et du trafficking du r¨¦cepteur VPAC1 humain.

Les récepteurs couplés aux protéines G (RCPG) sont impliqués dans la majeure partie des communications intercellulaires. Un grand nombre de RCPG ont été découverts en comparant la séquence des récepteurs connus avec les données fournies par le séquençage du génome humain. Pour plus d'une centaine de ces récepteurs, le ligand activateur ou agoniste est inconnu. Ces récepteurs sont dès lors qualifiés d'orphelins. Les LGR forment une sous-famille de RCPG structurellement proches de la rhodopsine qui comprend les récepteurs aux hormones glycoprotéiques (TSH, LH, hCG, FSH) et à la relaxine. LGR4 est un membre de cette famille dont ni la fonction précise, ni l'agoniste ne sont connus. Dans un premier temps, une cartographie détaillée de l'expression de Lgr4 chez la souris a été obtenue. Nous avons tiré parti de l'existence d'une lignée de souris transgéniques dont le gène Lgr4 a été interrompu par l'introduction d'une cassette comportant deux marqueurs histologiques. L'activité beta-galactosidase d'un de ces marqueurs a été analysée chez les souris hétérozygotes. Ces dernières ne présentent pas de phénotype particulier, ce qui permet d'estimer que l'expression des marqueurs rend effectivement compte de l'expression normale du gène Lgr4. Lgr4 est exprimé dans un grand nombre de structures, notamment dans le cartilage, le rein, les appareils reproducteurs mâle et femelle et certaines cellules du système nerveux. Ensuite, le phénotype des souris homozygotes pour l'inactivation de Lgr4 (LGR4KO) a été exploré. Ces souris présentent à la naissance un poids inférieur à leurs congénères des autres phénotypes. Les mâles sont stériles à cause d'une malformation des tubules efférents et de l'épididyme. Un blocage au niveau des tubules efférents reliant le testicule à l'épididyme contraint les spermatozoïdes à s'accumuler à la sortie du testicule, dans la région du rete testis. De plus, les tubes de l'épididyme, pourtant normaux à la naissance, ne s'allongent pas pour former la structure convolutée habituelle. L'épithélium de ces tubes est aplati et est entouré d'une quantité anormalement élevée de mésenchyme. Dans un troisième temps, des outils nécessaires aux futures tentatives d'identification de l'agoniste naturel de LGR4 ont été réalisés. Il s'agit : (1) d'anticorps monoclonaux dirigés contre la partie extracellulaire du récepteur humain. (2) d'un appât moléculaire pour la ‘pêche au ligand’. Cet appât est constitué du domaine extracellulaire du récepteur humain couplé à un marqueur histologique. (3) d'une construction peptidique constituée du domaine extracellulaire du récepteur humain couplé à une queue poly-histidine. Cette construction est destinée à servir de greffon lors de chromatographies d'affinités devant permettre de purifier le ligand. (4) de lignées cellulaires exprimant le récepteur LGR4 humain ainsi que le système æquorine devant permettre de détecter l'activation de ce récepteur. Les données apportées par ce travail montrent un rôle important du récepteur LGR4 au cours du développement et permettent de circonscrire le champ des recherches futures. Ceci, ainsi que les outils moléculaires développés, constitue une base pour l'identification future de l'agoniste et la détermination précise de la fonction de LGR4.