Abstract The culture of law enforcement is an all or nothing proposition with no gray area where membership into this society is concerned. You are either “on the job” or you are not. Even references among officers to “the job” indicate there is only one job. Likened to a secret handshake, that initial phrase if answered correctly opens the door to instant fraternal acceptance, get out of violation passes, and the many other assumed privileges of brotherhood. Manning (1980) describes the powerful mystification of policing as the “sacred canopy”. He further asserts that “the police role conveys a sense of sacredness or awesome power that lies at the root of political order, and authority, the claims a state makes upon its people for deference to rules, laws and norms” (Manning, 1980, p. 21). These elements make policing unique to all other American occupations. The sacredness of the profession creates social autonomy protected by the officers’ code of silence. Operating in this vacuum apart from public accountability fosters an environment for behavior outside of laws the institution is charged with enforcing. My research shows the process of occupational socialization ushers officers into a state of becoming blue, or the enculturation of expectant behavior and actions. I confirm that assignments into the Special Operations Group (SOG) facilitate a subculture separate and apart from the institutional ideals (Librett, 2006) and encourage a darkening of the shade of blue identifying officers with a labeling of deviance. While previous research identifies the code of silence as a by-product of the policing culture, my research identifies it as fundamental for maintaining the covenant of the dark blue fraternity.

Understanding the psychology behind the perpetrators of the Holocaust has been difficult because experiments on conformity and obedience cannot readily simulate the reality of the Holocaust. There exists historical documentation surrounding the leaders of the Nazi organization instrumental for the perpetration of the Holocaust, but the underlying motives of Hitler's leaders relating to governmental policies of systematic extermination of the Jews in Europe, are not known, as the strategy and operationalization of the actions were kept extremely secret, disguised by euphemisms, or only discussed verbally. This research study was to further understand the thought processes behind the manipulation tactics applied by leaders of the Nazi organization, and the leaders of Britain, America, and the Soviet Union during the Holocaust, by reviewing their personal writings, communiques, and orders. The theoretical base used was the theory of groupthink by Janis, because it is most applicable to understanding complex human psychology. The research questions of the study were: a) to find the origins of the Final Solution, why it gained acceptance by the Nazis, and the role of anti-Semitism ; and b) to identify groupthink symptom language relating to German, British, American, and Soviet leaders during the Holocaust. A qualitative multiple retro-historical case study methodology was selected. Data were collected and analyzed from archival material and groupthink theory was found to be ideally suited to the study of the Holocaust. Translation of a period of Alfred Rosenberg's diary relating to Hitler's issuance of the 'Hitler Extermination Order,' was discovered. The results show areas for further research, including the translation into English of the Alfred Rosenberg diary that was lost to history for over 60 years. The findings of this research study will hopefully help organizational psychologists to better remedy groupthink practices.

The theory of groupthink has been highly beneficial in the study of how groups make decisions. It has permeated almost every field containing decision making groups. Despite its popularity, there has been a surprising lack of empirical support for the model. It is the aim of this paper to suggest a possible explanation for the current state of groupthink research. First the groupthink model is described briefly, followed by a look at several selected empirical and case studies of groupthink. A potential reason for the dearth of empirical is then proposed along with a suggestion for future groupthink research.

Problem och syften När projekt befinner sig i extrema miljöer är betydelsen av ett fördelaktigt beslutsfattande avgörande. Om projektdeltagarna inte lyckas ta genomtänkta beslut finns det risk för att projektet misslyckas vilket involverar allvarliga konsekvenser. Med hjälp av denna studie vill vi studera beslutsfattandet i projekt i extrema miljöer: Hur påverkas beslutsfattandet av extrema miljöer? Vi har funnit att ett antal parametrar påverkar projekts förmåga att ta beslut. Vårt syfte, som är uppdelat i ett huvudsyfte och ett praktiskt syfte, handlar således om att analysera hur beslutsfattandet påverkas i extrema miljöer utifrån de tre parametrarna Grupptänk, Riskhantering och Eskalerande engagemang. I huvudsyftet ingår även att vi ämnar utveckla en modell. Vårt delsyfte innebär att vi önskar förstå beslutsfattande för att ge ett bidrag till projekt i extrema miljöer. Metod Vi har skrivit på uppdrag av forskningsgruppen TripleED som har gett oss en stor mängd kvalitativ data rörande en bergsklättringsexpedition på K2 som är att likställas med ett projekt i en extrem miljö. Vi har antagit ett hermeneutiskt perspektiv i vår studie, eftersom vi med hjälp av det sekundära materialet vill tolka och förstå (Olsson & Sörensen, 2011, s. 162) beslutsfattandet inom projekt i extrema miljöer. Trots att vi har genomfört en studie baserad på kvalitativ data strävar vi efter ett deduktivt angreppssätt eftersom vi är intresserade av att undersöka vår sociala verklighet utifrån teorier, (Bryman & Bell, 2011, s. 11,13) samtidigt som vår studie har inslag av induktion. Teorier Vi har utgått från teorier som berör Beslutsprocessen där vi har skapat vår egen modell utifrån tre olika beslutsmodeller. I kombination har vi använt oss av teorier som berör de tre parametrarna Grupptänk, Riskhantering och Eskalerande engagemang för att vidare förstå hur de påverkar beslutsfattande i extrema miljöer. Vi sammanfattar det teoretiska kapitlet med hjälp av en modell som presenterar att parametrarna påverkar beslutsfattande. Med utgångspunkt i modellen genomförde vi sedan vår empiriska undersökning för att se hur beslutsfattandet påverkas. Slutsats Vi har funnit att Beslutsprocessen är kortare än vad teorin föreslår i projekt som befinner sig i extrema situationer. När det inte finns tillräckligt med tid att ta överlagda beslut kan projektdeltagare istället behöva förbereda Beslutsprocessen vilket reducerar risken att ogenomtänkta beslut tas vid kritiska situationer. Vi har kommit fram till att de tre parametrarna har olika påverkan på beslutsfattandet i extrema miljöer och sambandet mellan dem och Beslutsprocessen har vi synliggjort i en slutgiltig modell. Vidare kunde vi även konstatera att vår slutsats uppfyller kraven för trovärdighet vilket medför att vår studie är användbar för framtida projekt.

Försvarsmakten har specificerat personalen som sin kanske viktigaste resurs. Tidigare flygvapenchefen poängterade det mycket bra med att i sin värdegrundspolicy uttrycka att vi ”inte har råd att bara rekrytera ur halva befolkningen”. Det han då hade i åtanke var faktumet att vår arbetsgivare brister i att attrahera och behålla medarbetare som är kvinnor. I den kontexten kan man identifiera att Försvarsmakten behöver nyttja sin befintliga personal på bästa sätt. Vi vill undersöka hur flygvapnet kan nära personalens ambitioner att utvecklas till att bli det bästa de kan bli. Vi har med ett öppet sinne sökt svaren till vilka faktorer som påverkar och möjliggör en framgångsrik väg genom den yrkesverksamma delen av livet. De individer i vårt samhälle som vi valt att fokusera på har valt Försvarsmakten som arbetsplats och officer som yrke. Studien har en induktiv ansats, där empirin hämtas från både kvalitativa intervjuer och workshops. Genom hela arbetet har vi inspirerats av grounded theory som metod. Vi som forskare har en förförståelse för ämnet och har på ett naturligt sätt haft en god kontakt med de individer som deltagit i studien. Referensramen har hämtats från olika delar av forskningsfältet. Främst från organisationsteorier och organisationspsykologi. För att se helheten har vi använt Bolman & Deals organisationsteori, Brown & Brooks som utvecklar olika karriärteorier och Mintzberg som kompletterar med strukturmodeller. Från Försvarsmakten har vi tagit befintliga styrdokument och använt, av Försvarsmakten, anlitade företags teoretiska grund för karriärutveckling. För att konstruera vår sammanfattande modell har vi utgått från två etablerade modeller, en av Super (The Life-Career Rainbow: Six Life Roles in Schematic Life Space) och Schein (A Temporal Development Model). Utifrån empirin framträdde tre tydliga teman i vad som officeren fann som viktigast i förutsättningar till att vilja bygga sin karriär. Coaching, där tydlig feedback från chef och kollegor är en viktig ingrediens tillsammans med möjligheter och målinriktning. Livspusslet bygger på att kombinera arbetet med det övriga livet. Familj och fritid ska även fungera på ett balanserat sätt i förhållande till arbetsbelastning. Avtal och Försvarsmaktens geografiska spridning är andra områden som hämmar individen. Strategisk personalplan ses som en av framgångsfaktorerna för att locka och ge individen bra förutsättning för chefskarriären. För att underlätta för både organisation och individ krävs en symbios emellan dessa två. I karriären vi ser som önskvärd finns en långsiktighet och en metodiskt iterativ utveckling av både organisation och individ. Vidare har vi sett att en central personalplanerare får ett perspektiv som gynnar båda intressenterna i detta sammanhang.  Det har varit en spännande resa som har gett oss många intryck att ta med i framtiden. Vi har lärt oss om det faktiska ämnet men minst lika mycket om rollen som forskare och metoder för att tillgodogöra oss information och att förhålla oss till densamma. Vi har funnit en del väntade svar men också en hel del oväntade faktorer som i stort och smått påverkar de respondenter vi mött under vår resa. Vi har fått bekräftat vår uppfattning om ledningsgruppers sammansättning, lärt oss om vikten av mentorering på olika nivåer och hur mycket en organisationsstruktur med tydlighet värderas. Att den sociala delen av livet är viktig har vi egna erfarenheter av men att komma till insikt om samspelet som gör helheten var vi inte riktigt beredda på. Vi har valt att i en modell likna den här helheten vid en hybridkonstruktion där varje del är, likt en hybridbil, en motor samtidigt som en generator. För den med endast ett visst intresse för teknik så kan liknelsen ge en insikt om att varje del tillåts belasta en till del men också att batteriet ibland behöver laddas. Den moderna syn som växt fram hur samspelet fungerar idag har sin grund hos Frone och den integrativa modellen. Han menar att familj kan fungera som buffert mot stress genom att ge stöd och möjlighet till avkoppling lika väl som att familjen kan generera stress som påverkar arbetet Vi har under arbetet skiftat från en tydlig uppfattning om att grundutbildningen ger oss en, i viss mån, förutbestämd förutsättning för vidare karriär. Delvis har den uppfattningen bekräftats men inte på det sättet som vi förutspådde. Vi förväntade oss att finna strukturella tydligheter som med historik och ”gammal hävd” gjorde att en pilot i Flygvapnet på något sätt har en enklare och tydligare väg uppåt i hierarkin. Det stämmer, men det finns saker bakom kulisserna som vi inte var medvetna om. Det handlar om att välja medarbetare som liknar en själv och vi har sett det med all önskvärd tydlighet på fler olika platser och nivåer inte bara med just den kategorin. Det finns mer bakom, det finns processer som en chef bör medvetandegöras. Det finns påverkansfaktorer som inte går att bortse från då de i så fall omöjliggör för en stor del av vår personal att bidra på det sätt de har kapacitet till. Vi anser att vår organisation inte har lyxen att INTE ta till vara på de resurser vi har. / The Armed Forces have specified personnel as their perhaps most important resource. As the former Air Force Supreme Commander very well pointed in expressing “we can´t afford to recruit from half of the population". What he had in mind was the fact that the Swedish Armed Forces are not very good at attracting and retaining female employees. However, in this context it is possible to identify that the defense force needs to utilize its entire existing staff in the best possible way. We want to investigate how the Air Force can enthuse the personnel's ambitions and develop them to become all they can be. We have with an open mind sought the answers to what affects and enables a successful path through the professional part of life. The individuals in our society that we have chosen to focus on have chosen the Swedish Armed Forces as a workplace and Officer as a profession. The case study has an inductive approach, where the empiricism is derived from both qualitative interviews and workshops. Throughout the work we have been inspired by grounded theory as a method. We as researchers have had a certain understanding of the subject and naturally have had good contact with the individuals who participated in the study. The frame of reference has been taken from various parts of the research field. Mainly from organizational theories and organizational psychology. To see the whole, we have used Bolman & Deal organizational theory, Brown & Brooks who develop different career theories and Mintzberg who supplement with structural models. From the Armed Forces, we have taken existing governance documents and used, by the Armed Forces, the companies' theoretical basis for career development. To construct our model, we have based on two established models, one of Super (The Life-Career Rainbow: Six Life Roles in Schematic Life Space) and Schein (A Temporal Development Model). Based on the empiricism, three clear themes emerged in what the officer found to be most important in the conditions for wanting to build his career. Coaching, where clear feedback from the manager and colleagues is an important ingredient along with opportunities and goals. In the Life Puzzle it is important to get together work with the rest of life. Family and leisure should also function in a balanced way in relation to workload. Agreements and the Armed Forces' geographical distribution are other areas that hamper the individual. Strategic personnel plan is seen as one of the success factors for attracting and giving the individual a good basis for the managerial career. To facilitate both organization and individual, a symbiosis between these two is required. In the career model we have built there is a long-term perspective and a methodically iterative development of both organization and individual. Furthermore, we have seen that a central staff planner has a perspective that benefits both stakeholders in this context. It has been an exciting journey that has given us a lot, we have learned about the actual subject but also about the role of researcher and provided us with information and means to relate to it. We have found some expected answers, but also a lot of unexpected factors that affect the respondents. We have confirmed our view on the composition of management groups and learned about the importance of mentoring at different levels and how much an organizational structure is clearly valued. The social part of life is important but we have now also an understanding of the interaction that makes the whole. We have chosen to create a model to resemble this in a hybrid design where each part is, like a hybrid car, an engine at the same time as a generator. For those with only a certain interest in technology, we think that the parable gives an insight that each part can be allowed to propel but also that it sometimes needs to charge its battery. The modern view that has emerged how the interaction works today has its foundation in Frone and the integrative model. He believes that family can act as a buffer against stress by providing support and opportunities for relaxation as well as that the family can generate more stress that affects the work. During the duration of the work, we have shifted from a clear perception that the basic training and undergraduate education gives us a certain predetermined condition for further career. In part, this view has been confirmed, but not in the way we assumed. We expected to find structural clarity that, with history and "old claims", made a pilot in the Air Force somehow have a clearer path up the hierarchy. That's correct, but there are things behind the scenes that we weren't aware of. This is a story about choosing employees who are similar to yourself and we have seen it. We have seen it with all the desirable clarity in several different places and levels, not just with that particular category. There is more behind the scenes, there are processes that a manager should make conscious. There are influencing factors that cannot be ignored as they in this case make it impossible for a large part of our staff to contribute in the way they have capacity. We believe that our organization does not have the luxury of NOT utilizing the resources we have.

No description available.

This paper seeks to answer how misogyny is expressed in the forum incels.is, a discussion board forum where incel users engage in threads to talk to each other about the difficulties of not having sexual or romantic relations. The method chosen is netnography, which helps when studying sensitive subjects and communities, and requires the researcher to be aware of any bias that they carry.  The netnography was conducted in the prefixes Ragefuel and Blackpill, which resulted in seven categories of misogyny and how they are manifested in the threads on the forum. By looking at previous research of incels, incel communities and misogyny, and with the theories of virtual communities, subcultures, participation and groupthink, the results of the study are discussed to understand how misogyny manifests on the forum. It is concluded that misogyny is manifested through seven categories on the forum, and how seeing incels as a subculture would allow their participation of misogyny to be observed more closely, as their virtual community serves as a function of upholding the cultural specificities Cottee (2020) claims are typical of incels. Further, future research is recommended to focus on how algorithms and the forum (serving as an echo chamber) indoctrinate new users to hate women. / Denna studie ämnar att svara på hur misogyni är uttryckt i forumet incels.is, ett diskussionsforum där incelanvändare deltar i trådar för att prata om svårigheterna om att inte ha några sexuella eller romantiska relationer. Den valda metoden är netnografi, som är fördelaktig när man studerar känsliga ämnen och gemenskaper, och den kräver att författaren är medveten om fördomar som de möjligtvis har. Netnografin genomfördes i prefixerna Ragefuel och Blackpill, vilket resulterade i sju kategorier av misogyni och hur de är manifesterade i trådarna på forumet. Genom att titta på tidigare forskning om incels, incelgemenskaper och misogyni och med hjälp av teorierna virtuella gemenskaper, subkulturer, deltagande och grupptänkande, diskuteras resultaten för att förstå hur misogyni manifesteras på forumet. Till sist blir slutsatsen att misogyni manifesteras i sju olika typer på forumet, och genom att se på incels som en subkultur ger möjlighet till att närmare granska hur deras deltagande i misogyni uttrycks, då deras virtuella gemenskap blir en funktion av att upprätthålla kulturella särdrag som Cottee (2020) menar är typiska av incels. Vidare rekommenderas framtida forskning att fokusera på hur algoritmer och forumet (i funktion av en ekokammare) indoktrinerar nya användare till att hata kvinnor.

Policy makers have long recognized the importance of considering past experience, history, and the use of Analogical reasoning when making policy decisions. When elite political actors face foreign policy crises, they often use their past experience, refer to history, and use Analogical reasoning to help them frame their decisions. In the case of the ill-fated invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs, the use of Analogical reasoning revolving around past covert successes may have created an environment for faulty foreign policy decision-making. Former members of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) filled the ranks of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and held key positions within the Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations. OSS success with guerrilla warfare, sabotage, and intelligence gathering during World War II, coupled with early CIA covert successes (specifically in Guatemala), may have led President Kennedy to make the wrong policy decisions with regard to dealing with Fidel Castro and Cuba. This research explores the use of Analogical reasoning during the decision-making process by way of process-tracing. Process-tracing attempts to identify the intervening processes between an independent variable (or variables) and the outcome of the dependent variable. We look at six critical junctures and compare how Groupthink, the Bureaucratic Politics Model, and Analogical reasoning approaches help explain any causal mechanisms. The findings suggest that Analogical reasoning may have played a more significant role in President Kennedy's final decision to invade Cuba than previously thought. The findings further suggest that by using the Analogical reasoning approach, our understanding of President Kennedy's foreign policy in Cuba is enhanced when compared to the Groupthink and Bureaucratic Politics Model approaches emphasized in past research.

This study aims to explore strengths and challenges in an all-female executive team. The subject of female executive teams is relatively unexplored, why the study contributes with a new perspective on the dynamics and processes occurring in an all-female executive team. 45-minute interviews were conducted with each member of the group, which consists of five women between the age of 50 and 61. Together they constitute an executive team in a Swedish organization. A thematic analysis was conducted and four themes were identified, as follows: openness, respect, inefficient processes and homogeneity. In general, the group is perceived to be well-functioning, and they consistently emphasize positive qualities within their group. Among other things, they talk about an open climate, absence of prestige and express care for each other. To some extent, the group is homogeneous. This makes them at risk of groupthink and missing perspectives, although there is no indication in the interviews that this is occurring. They do however express a lack of time and strategic work, deficiencies in structure and to some extent a too large need for control. The study’s findings are discussed in relation to previous research on power structures, gender studies and group development. At last, suggestions are given for further studies to explore whether it is the gender composition or the women's personalities that make the group so well-functioning.

The literature on analogical reasoning has established several main points of consensus, or rules about how the process works and what behaviors it produces. The first rule is that the process is employed almost universally. Second, its utilization is extremely prominent in novel situations, such as foreign policy decisions. These rules being established, it must be inferred that almost all foreign policy makers utilize analogical reasoning to some extent when faced with a unique situation. Another rule established is that once a person has defined a situation in terms of the analogy and developed an appropriate policy, he/she will rarely change his/her opinion. However, it has been well established by the groupthink theory that, when placed in a group setting, individuals can be dissuaded from their original assessments of the necessary responses to a situation. Thus it must be inferred that group processes, at least the groupthink syndrome, and analogical reasoning interact. Consequently, in order to fully understand a policy failure, which has been credited to groupthink, it is necessary to examine what cognitive processes led to both the original formulation and the adoption of the policy. Exactly how these processes interact remains unstudied. Although the literature reviewed in this study is not comprehensive on either subject, it covers the more authoritative and critically reviewed literature. Also, extensive efforts to find a similar argument to the one presented here offered few results. This implies that the correlation, if any, remains relatively understudied. Therefore, there is a need for the work at hand, in order to further understand how these prevalent cognitive processes have affected foreign policy decisions and the implications for the future.