This article addresses the issue referred to harmful lawful acts which also generate liability, thus ruling out the unlawfulness as an essential element for the generation of liability. In this regard, the author makes a conceptual analysis of the unlawfulness or illegality, and he examines three cases of liability, such as environmental damage, the interim resolution and withdraw the work of trade; demonstrating, effectively, the dispensable nature of the unlawfulness and the existence of scenarios of liability arising from harmful lawful acts. / El presente artículo aborda la temática referida a los actos lícitos dañosos, los cuales también generan responsabilidad civil, descartando así a la ilicitud como un elemento indispensable para la generación de responsabilidad civil. En este sentido, el artículo parte del análisis conceptual de la ilicitud o antijuridicidad, para luego arribar al examen de tres supuestos de responsabilidad civil, como lo son el daño ambiental, la resolución cautelar y el retiro de la obra del comercio; demostrando, efectivamente, el carácter prescindible de la ilicitud y la existencia de escenarios de responsabilidad civil derivados de actos lícitos dañosos.

La catégorisation actuelle du trouble de l’addiction dans le DSM-V fait face à plusieurs problèmes théoriques. D’abord, la catégorie nommée « Troubles liés à l’abus de substance et troubles addictifs » met en évidence le problème de l’exclusion par son manque de justification à inclure certains troubles du comportement, mais à en exclure d’autres, dans sa caractérisation. Le chevauchement constitue le deuxième problème que pose la catégorie du DSM-V, dans la mesure où certaines catégories censées être distinctes se recoupent en réalité. Les problèmes d’exclusion et de chevauchement remettent en question le fait de tracer ainsi les frontières entre catégories et en révèlent leur manque de validité conceptuelle. Et alors que la catégorie du trouble de l’addiction se heurte à ces problèmes, on peut douter de son utilité dans le traitement et la prise en charge des patients. Donc, par souci de fournir une classification en psychiatrie qui est valide et utile, il est nécessaire de redéfinir le trouble de l’addiction. Cela nous permettra de le classer autrement et adéquatement. Ainsi, nous défendons la thèse, dans ce mémoire, selon laquelle l’addiction ne renvoie pas à une entité discrète mais plutôt à un continuum, où coexistent deux phénomènes qu’il faut toutefois séparer : la motivation addictive et le trouble de l’addiction. Selon la définition que nous proposons, une taxonomie dimensionnelle, plutôt que catégorielle, représente mieux le trouble de l’addiction. Une telle approche possède le potentiel d’offrir de meilleurs outils aux cliniciens et aux chercheurs dans le traitement des personnes atteintes du trouble de l’addiction. / The categorization of addiction in the DSM-V faces many theoretical problems. First, the category named “Substance-use disorders and addictive disorders” emphasizes the problem of exclusion by its lack of justification to include certain behavioral disorders, whilst also excluding many other ones. Second, the category also induces the problem of overlapping, which refers to the way certain categories expected to be distinct actually intersect with each other. These problems of exclusion and overlapping raise some questions about the way the boundaries between categories are traced and reveal their lack of conceptual validity. Moreover, as categorization faces these theoretical problems, we can also doubt the usefulness of the category of addiction in the treatment and care of patients. Therefore, it is necessary to redefine addictive disorder in order to offer a classification that is valid and useful. Thus, in this memoir, we want to argue that addiction refers not to a discrete entity but to a continuum where two distinct phenomena coexist: addictive motivation and addictive disorder. According to our definition, dimensions, rather than categories, are much more appropriate to represent as is the disorder of addiction. This approach has the potential to offer better tools to clinicians and researchers in the treatment of people suffering from an addictive disorder.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Eagle Creek Reservoir (ECR), located in the Midwestern U.S., is a freshwater limnic system plagued by seasonal Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) which generate water-fouling Geosmin (GSM) and 2-Methylisoborneol (MIB) Taste and Odor (T&O) compounds. Past investigations of T&O event dynamics have identified Actinomycetes as responsible for MIB production and several genera of cyanobacteria for GSM production. During 2018, a temporally and spatially expansive sampling regimen of the reservoir was carried out and a battery of biological, chemical, physical, and hyperspectral experiments performed. The resulting data was analyzed using time series, cross-correlation, lag time, and multivariate analyses as well as machine learning algorithms to pick apart and interrogate any relationships between HABs, T&O events, and environmental parameters. The results show that local weather and watershed conditions exert significant control over the state of the reservoir and the behavior of the algal community. GSM and MIB peaked during early May under well-mixed, cold, and nutrient-rich water column conditions, then declined under summer thermal stratification before making a small resurgence during late season mixing. Bloom die-off and decay was effectively ruled out as a mechanism controlling T&O concentrations, and no links were found between T&O concentrations and algal biomass. Strong evidence was found that GSM/MIB concentrations were a response by bloom microbes to changing nutrient conditions within the reservoir, and it was determined that nutrient fluxes from the watershed 30-40 days prior to peak T&O concentrations are likely instrumental in the development of the slow- ix growing microbes characteristic of the reservoir. Attempts were made to assess spatial and temporal variability but no significant spatial differences were identified; differences between sampling sites were far smaller than differences between different sampling dates. The findings here add to the growing body of literature showing T&O and HAB dynamics are more closely linked to the relative abundance and speciation of nutrients than other parameters. Additionally, these findings carry important implications for the management of ECR and other similar freshwater reservoirs while highlighting the importance of reducing watershed eutrophication.

ABSTRACT Female genital mutilation and circumcision (FGM/C) is an expression that describes social and traditional actions performed for the removal of the clitoris and inner lips; labia minora as well as part of the outer lips; labia majora. The research has addressed the effects of this action on women in Ejagham community of the Southwest region of Cameroon. The study focuses on effects revealed during the research, including voices of the women who had undergone FGM/C, excisors recount, violence against women physical, psychological, social, and sexual effects.  In traditional African societies, cultural values should be upheld with dignity to humankind. Our traditional practices too, need to give honour to our bodies. Therefore, opinions from different groups within the Ejagham community are revealed in the discussion. More so, the study also found out that FGM/C was a practice performed on the girls and women on the cultural and traditional beliefs that the process signifies a rite of passage from girl to womanhood.  The process caused pain and violated the right of the young girls. The findings revealed that there are divided opinions on FGM/C within the community. Custodians of the Ejagham tradition that are in favour of the practice are conflicting with those who are against the practice on medical and human right justifications.  These different platforms play a prominent role in the various perceptions held by the people. A significant segment of the Ejagham community, together with some representatives of the international community, NGOs and the government of Cameroon are involved in efforts to bring about change in the community by eliminating the tradition through community-based awareness programs. These programs that are accessible by everybody has empowered people in the community with knowledge on the subject and provided the necessary resources that will help in eliminating the practice. The efforts have initiated a changing climate in the community; however, this does not yet mean that the tradition has been abolished. The paper shall also discuss the traditional and cultural reasons for the practice of FGM in Cameroon. The author will state International instruments, Conventions, the National laws, Action plan that is to eliminate or lead to the abandonment of FGM practices in Cameroon.  The paper will conclude with suitable suggestions to eradicate the practice of FGM/C, which is against Human Rights. Keywords: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting, Human Rights, Ejagham, Community, Cameroon / <p>Comments from the Examiner have been included in the thesis</p> / Master in Peace and Development WorkABSTRACT Female genital mutilation and circumcision (FGM/C) is an expression that describes social and traditional actions performed for the removal of the clitoris and inner lips; labia minora as well as part of the outer lips; labia majora. The research has addressed the effects of this action on women in Ejagham community of the Southwest region of Cameroon. The study focuses on effects revealed during the research, including voices of the women who had undergone FGM/C, excisors recount, violence against women physical, psychological, social, and sexual effects. In traditional African societies, cultural values should be upheld with dignity to humankind. Our traditional practices too, need to give honour to our bodies. Therefore, opinions from different groups within the Ejagham community are revealed in the discussion. More so, the study also found out that FGM/C was a practice performed on the girls and women on the cultural and traditional beliefs that the process signifies a rite of passage from girl to womanhood. The process caused pain and violated the right of the young girls. The findings revealed that there are divided opinions on FGM/C within the community. Custodians of the Ejagham tradition that are in favour of the practice are conflicting with those who are against the practice on medical and human right justifications. These different platforms play a prominent role in the various perceptions held by the people. A significant segment of the Ejagham community, together with some representatives of the international community, NGOs and the government of Cameroon are involved in efforts to bring about change in the community by eliminating the tradition through community-based awareness programs. These programs that are accessible by everybody has empowered people in the community with knowledge on the subject and provided the necessary resources that will help in eliminating the practice. The efforts have initiated a changing climate in the community; however, this does not yet mean that the tradition has been abolished. The paper shall also discuss the traditional and cultural reasons for the practice of FGM in Cameroon. The author will state International instruments, Conventions, the National laws, Action plan that is to eliminate or lead to the abandonment of FGM practices in Cameroon. The paper will conclude with suitable suggestions to eradicate the practice of FGM/C, which is against Human Rights. Keywords: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting, Human Rights, Ejagham, Community, Cameroon

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The European Union was devised to promote competition in the international market environment and ensure balanced allocation of fiscal and political requirements of the Member States. Globalization has led to enabling tax environments through granting of tax benefits by EU Member jurisdictions intended to promote competition in attracting foreign investment, trade, and development. Multinational Corporations may often exploit these tax benefits through various tax arrangement provisions causing a loss of tax revenue. The European Commission is implored to oversee the tax ruling granted by the Member States that is distortionary to the internal market. The Notion of State aid rule Article 107(1) TFEU is adopted as part of the mechanism to combat distortions that leads to tax evasion and harmful tax competition.  This research is intended to analyse the Commission and the General Court’s approach to demonstrate illegal or unlawful State aid through varied and adaptive methodology to tackle emerging complex tax arrangements provisions of Multinational Corporations, notably the Amazon and Engie recent cases. This paper also discusses the identification of potential conflict of laws between the relevant general system of legal rule of the domestic tax legislation and EU Law. Specifically with regards to the determination of whether a tax benefit confers a tax advantage and subsequently if that advantage is deemed selective in nature in a transfer of financial asset undertaking under a certain domestic law. The dynamics of potential abuse of law and aid recovery with the general tax principle of Legality will also be explored.

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