Com a descoberta de novas fontes de petróleo e gás, em regiões remotas e de difícil acesso, tem-se a necessidade do desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias para garantir a eficácia da exploração destes recursos. Essa exploração e extração muitas vezes se dão em ambientes altamente corrosivos e os equipamentos devem apresentar propriedades que garantam um fator de segurança em serviço. Os aços de alta resistência e baixa liga (ARBL) são utilizados em tubulações para o transporte de gás natural e petróleo. Estes estão constantemente expostos a ambientes ácidos os quais são compostos de umidade e sulfeto de hidrogênio (H2S), podendo causar falha induzida pela presença de hidrogênio (Hydrogen Induced Cracking HIC). Este tipo de falha é normalmente abordado na literatura através de ensaios em solução contendo ácido acético e/ou sais (cloreto de sódio, entre outros), sempre com a injeção de H2S. Há vários mecanismos propostos, no entanto, o assunto não está totalmente resolvido. As alterações de composição química dos aços, processos de refino do aço e processos de conformação mecânica são responsáveis pela microestrutura final e determinantes da resistência à fragilização por hidrogênio. O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar e comparar o comportamento quanto à resistência à corrosão e resistência à HIC de quatro materiais: tubo X65 sour, sua região de solda, tubo X65 não-sour e uma chapa destinada a confecção de tubo X65. Os eletrólitos empregados foram: solução A (ácido acético contendo cloreto de sódio) e a solução B (água do mar sintética), os quais correspondem às soluções recomendadas pela norma NACE TM0284-2003. Os materiais foram submetidos a: ensaios de polarização (Polarização Linear para determinação da Resistência de Polarização - Rp) e ensaios de resistência a HIC segundo a norma NACE TM0284-2003; exames em microscópio óptico e eletrônico de varredura para caracterização da morfologia da corrosão e do trincamento. Os ensaios de Rp revelaram que a solução A é mais agressiva do que a solução B, sendo isso explicado pela diferença de pH entre estas duas soluções. Os resultados mostraram ainda que a máxima resistência à corrosão sempre é obtida para o tubo sour, enquanto a mínima ocorreu para o tubo não-sour. Após o ensaio de resistência a HIC os exames em microscópio óptico revelaram que, em ambas as soluções, o tubo de X65 sour, e a sua solda não apresentaram trincas, bem como a chapa destinada a tubo X65; já o tubo de X65 não-sour apresentou trincamento principalmente na região central. Os exames das trincas revelaram que a presença de cementita intergranular e a estrutura bandeada foram as causas do trincamento. No caso do tubo sour, o bom desempenho foi discutido em termos da microestrutura de ferrita poligonal, acicular e microconstituinte M/A. Já o comportamento distinto encontrado para a chapa (para tubo X65), foi discutido levando-se em conta que esta chapa apresentou menor quantidade de cementita intergranular, uma vez que, sua microestrutura é bandeada e não foi encontrado trincamento. Os resultados também revelaram que a solução B, como no caso da resistência à corrosão, é uma solução menos agressiva, pois o trincamento obtido foi muito menor. / The discovery of new oil and gas reserves, at remote and hard to reach locations, makes imperative the development of new technologies to ensure effective exploitation of these resources. This exploitation is often performed at highly corrosive environments and equipment such as pipelines should have special mechanical and corrosion properties to guarantee safety levels in service. High-Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) steels are used in pipelines for transporting gas and oil. These steels are in constant exposure to acid environments containing hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and water, that can cause pipeline failures due to Hydrogen-Induced Cracking - HIC. The literature reports that Hydrogen-Induced Cracking in steels is normally tested in solutions containing acetic acid and/or, salts (sodium chloride and others) with addition of H2S. Chemical composition, steel refining processes and metal forming processes are responsible for the final microstructure of the steel and have effect on the hydrogen embrittlement resistance. The purpose of this work is to analyze and compare the corrosion resistance and HIC resistance, and compare of four materials: pipeline steel API 5L X65 for sour service, its welded junctions, pipeline steel API 5L X65 for non-sour service and pipeline steel plate API 5L X65. The materials were submitted to linear polarization test (Rp) and HIC resistance test according to NACE TM0284-2003 standard. Both tests were carried out with two different electrolytes: the solution A (acetic acid and sodium chloride) and solution B (synthetic seawater). Subsequently; the surface of the steels were evaluated by optical microscope and scanning electron microscopy in order to characterize the cracking modes and corrosion morphology. The Rp tests showed that the solution A is more aggressive than solution B, behavior attributed to the pH difference between solutions. Steel API 5L X65 for sour service had the highest corrosion resistance and pipeline steel API 5L X65 for non-sour service had the lowest. The HIC test and the surface examination revealed that in both solutions, pipeline steel API 5L X65 for sour service, the welded junctions and the pipeline steel plate API 5L X65 showed no cracks. On the other hand, pipeline steel API 5L X65 for non-sour service presented cracking mainly in the central region. The tests revealed that the cracks nucleated at the intergranular cementite in the banded structure. The good performance of the pipeline steel API 5L X65 for sour service was discussed in terms of the microstructure, formed by polygonal ferrite, acicular ferrite and M/A microconstituent. The performance of steel plate (for pipeline API 5L X65) was different. This material did not exhibit cracks in the matrix in spite of its banded microstructure. This result was discussed taking into account that the plate studied had a small amount of intergranular cementite. The results also showed that the solution B, as in the case of corrosion resistance tests, was less aggressive than solution A, because the cracks produced were smaller.

As respostas termorregulatórias ao lipopolissacarídeo (LPS) são influenciadas por moduladores que aumentam (febrigênicos) ou diminuem (criogênicos) a temperatura corporal (Tb). Entre eles, o neurotransmissor gasoso sulfeto de hidrogênio (H2S) modula a inflamação sistêmica induzida por endotoxina em ratos, agindo como uma molécula anti-inflamatória e criogênica, embora os mecanismos subjacentes ainda sejam pouco compreendidos. Considerando que a endotoxina é um ligando para o Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) e que evidências recentes revelam um cross-talk entre a via de sinalização TLR e fosfo-Akt (p-Akt), o objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar se o H2S atua como um mediador antiinflamatório e antipirético durante as fases termorregulatórias que ocorrem no choque endotoxêmico (hipotermia e febre) induzido por lipopolissacarídeo bacteriano (LPS, 2,5 mg / kg intraperitoneal (ip)) através da modulação sobre a produção de prostaglandina D2 (PGD2) e a ativação de Akt na área pré-óptica ântero-ventral do hipotálamo (AVPO). A Tb profunda de ratos mantidos a uma temperatura ambiente de 25 °C foi registrada antes e depois da inibição farmacológica da enzima cistationina ?-sintase (CBS - responsável pela produção endógena de H2S no cérebro) usando aminooxiacetato (AOA, 100 pmol, intracerebroventricular (icv)), combinado ou não com administração de LPS. Para esclarecer os mecanismos responsáveis por esses ajustes da resposta imune, foram determinados na AVPO os níveis de H2S, a produção de PGD2 e o perfil de expressão das proteínas CBS, p-Akt e p-CREB. Além disso, foi analisada a concentração de citocinas plasmáticas (IL-1?, IL-6, IL-10, TNF?, IFN-? , E IL-4). A injeção ip de LPS causou hipotermia típica seguida de febre. Os níveis de AVPO H2S aumentaram significativamente durante a hipotermia quando comparado com ratos eutérmicos e febris. A microinjeção icv de AOA não causou nenhuma alteração na Tb nem na produção basal de PGD2 durante a eutermia. Em ratos tratados com LPS, o AOA causou uma atenuação na queda da Tb durante a fase de hipotermia e uma febre exacerbada, simultaneamente com o aumento na produção de PGD2 e abolição do aumento induzido pela endotoxina na atividade de Akt. Durante a fase de febre, a expressão relativa de CBS esteve significativamente diminuída enquanto a expressão relativa de p-Akt esteve aumentada, quando comparado com ratos eutérmicos e hipotérmicos. As citocinas plasmáticas aumentaram durante a inflamação sistêmica, mas apenas a IL-4 mostrou um padrão semelhante em relação à Akt. Estes dados são consistentes com a noção de que o neurotransmissor gasoso H2S modula as fases de hipotermia e febre durante o choque endotoxêmico, atuando como uma molécula criogênica. Este papel anti-inflamatório durante a inflamação sistémica envolve uma regulação positiva da PGD2, de Akt e da IL-4 plasmática. / Thermoregulatory responses to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) are affected by modulators that increase (pro-pyretic) or decrease (cryogenic) body temperature (Tb). Among them, the gaseous messenger hydrogen sulfide (H2S) modulates endotoxin-induced systemic inflammation being an anti-inflammatory and cryogenic molecule, although the underlying mechanisms are still poorly understood. Since endotoxin is a Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) ligand and recent evidence indicates that there is a possible a cross-talk between the TLR and phospho-Akt (p-Akt) signaling pathway, the current study aimed to investigate whether H2S acts as an anti-inflammatory and anti-pyretic mediator during thermoregulatory phases of endotoxic shock (hypothermia and fever) induced by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 2.5 mg/kg intraperitoneal (ip)) through the modulation of prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) production and activation of Akt in the anteroventral preoptic region of the hypothalamus (AVPO). Deep Tb in rats kept at an ambient temperature of 25 °C, was recorded before and after pharmacological inhibition of the enzyme cystathionine ?-synthase (CBS - responsible for H 2S endogenous production in the brain) using aminooxyacetate (AOA; 100 pmol/1 ?l intracerebroventricular (icv)) combined or not with endotoxin administration. To clarify the mechanisms responsible for these adjustments on immune response were verified in the AVPO H 2S levels, PGD2 production and expression profiles of CBS, p-Akt and p-CREB. In addition, plasma cytokines concentration (IL-1?, IL-6, IL-10, TNF?, IFN-?, and IL-4) was analyzed. Intraperitoneal injection of LPS caused typical hypothermia followed by fever. Intracerebroventricular microinjection of AOA neither affected Tb nor basal PGD2 production during euthermia. Levels of AVPO H2S were significantly increased during hypothermia when compared to both euthermic and febrile rats. In LPS-treated rats, AOA increased Tb values during hypothermia and fever, along with enhanced PGD2 production and abolition of endotoxin-induced increase in Akt activity. During fever, CBS relative expression was significantly decreased whereas p-Akt was significantly increased when compared to both euthermic and hypothermic rats. Plasma cytokines were increased during systemic inflammation, but only IL-4 showed a similar pattern in relation to Akt. These data are consistent with the notion that the gaseous messenger H2S modulates hypothermia and fever during endotoxic shock, acting as a cryogenic molecule. This anti-inflammatory role during systemic inflammation involves a H2S-induced up-modulation of PGD2, Akt and plasma IL-4.

L'ischémie/reperfusion (I/R) est un phénomène très fréquent en clinique humaine. Ce phénomène est observé lors de la désobstruction d'une artère digestive, du traitement d'un état de choc, ainsi qu'au cours d'autres pathologies. L'interruption de la perfusion tissulaire (ischémie) et le rétablissement de celle-ci (reperfusion) sont la cause de la mise en place de troubles hémodynamiques et métaboliques. L'I/R est souvent présentée comme étant la principale source de l'hyperlactatémie et le moteur de la réponse inflammatoire lors des états de choc (cardiogénique, hypovolémique, septique). Parallèlement, elle est responsable de l'induction de la production de la libération des espèces réactives de l'oxygène, des cytokines et du monoxyde d'azote. Suite à un choc hémorragique par Ischémie/reperfusion chez le rat, nous avons montré que 1) le NaHS, donneur d'H2S limite la diminution de la pression artérielle moyenne et diminue le lactate plasmatique, témoin de la souffrance tissulaire, 2) cette amélioration hémodynamique est associée à une baisse de l'expression myocardique des ARNm d'iNOS, une diminution de la concentration des dérivés NOx plasmatiques et une diminution des concentrations aortiques et myocardiques de NO et d'anion superoxyde et 3) l'inhibition d'H2S par la DL-propargylglycine aggrave le tableau hémodynamique et les conséquences tissulaires du choc. Dans un autre modèle d'ischémie/reperfusion intestinale, les résultats obtenus, montrent que l'administration de la Protéine C activée (PCa) ou de la dexaméthaosne (Dexa) : 1) améliore la PAM et la réactivité vasculaire, 2) permet d'augmenter le pH et de diminuer la lactatémie, 3) diminue la production des cytokines pro-inflammatoires et 4) inhibe les médiateurs de l'apoptose. Ces résultats sont reliés à une down régulation d'iNOS, une restauration de la voie Akt/eNOS et à une resensibilisation des adrénorécepteurs alpha. Ces résultats ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives cliniques dans les traitements de l'I/R / Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) is a very common phenomenon, observed during intestinal artery surgery, shock treatment, as well as in several other diseases. The disruption of tissue perfusion (ischemia) and recovery (reperfusion) induce hemodynamic and metabolic dysfunction. Gut ischemia/reperfusion is often presented as the main source of lactate and the motor of the inflammatory response, such as cardiogenic, hypovolemic and septic shock. In parallel, gut reperfusion produces numerous mediators such as reactive oxygen metabolites, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and high concentrations of nitric oxide. In a model of ischemia/reperfusion induced by hemorrhagic shock, we found that 1) NaHS an injectable form of H2S, limited the decrease in arterial pressure induced by shock and decreased plasmatic lactate, a witness of tissue suffering, 2) this hemodynamic improvement was associated with a fall in myocardial iNOS mRNA expression, a reduction in the concentration of plasmatic NOx and a reduction of aortic and myocardial concentrations of NO and superoxide anion and 3) the inhibition of H2S with DL-propargylglycine worsened hemodynamics and tissue consequences of shock An experimental model of intestinal I/R has been developed, we demonstrated that the administration of APC or Dexa : 1) Improves MAP and vascular reactivity, 2) increased pH and decreased lactate, 3) decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines production and 4) inhibited apoptosis mediators expression. These results are related to a down regulation of iNOS, to a restoration of the AKT/eNOS pathway, and to alpha-adrenoreceptor resensitization. These results open new perspectives in clinical treatment of I/R

O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar e comparar o comportamento quanto à resistência à corrosão, permeabilidade de hidrogênio e sua relação com a susceptibilidade ao trincamento induzido por hidrogênio de aços ARBL, em ambientes contendo H2S, enfatizando a influência da microestrutura. Foram realizados tratamentos térmicos de normalização e têmpera (em água) de dois tipos de tubos API 5L X65 para aplicação sour service, obtendo-se três condições com diferentes microestruturas para cada tubo. Assim, as duas amostras tais como recebidas apresentavam microestruturas de: ferrita/perlita e, o outro, ferrita/ferrita acicular; após tratamento de normalização os dois tipos de amostras apresentaram microestrutura de ferrita/perlita; e, por último, os aços que passaram por têmpera constituíram-se de martensita. O eletrólito empregado foi a solução A (ácido acético contendo cloreto de sódio) da norma NACE TM0284-2011, saturado com H2S. Os materiais foram submetidos a: ensaios de polarização linear para determinação da Resistência de Polarização (Rp), ensaios de permeabilidade de hidrogênio - baseado na ASTM G148-2003 - e ensaios de resistência ao trincamento induzido por hidrogênio (HIC) segundo a norma NACE TM0284-2011; exames em microscópio óptico e eletrônico de varredura para caracterização microestrutural, da morfologia da corrosão e do trincamento. Após os ensaios de polarização linear, foi observada uma diferença pequena dos valores de Rp entre as diferentes amostras estudadas, entre 120 ?.cm2 e 210 ?.cm2; dentro desta faixa, as microestruturas de martensita (aços temperados) apresentaram a menor resistência à corrosão. Foi realizado o tratamento dos dados obtidos por polarização linear com a metodologia desenvolvida por Mansfeld (1973) para cálculo da taxa de corrosão, observando mudanças nos declives de Tafel evidenciando a formação de produtos de corrosão. Apesar da formação destes produtos a taxa de corrosão não foi afetada, já que estes produtos são dissolvidos na solução A, oferecendo uma baixa proteção contra à corrosão. Nos ensaios de permeabilidade de hidrogênio foi utilizada uma célula modificada tipo Devanathan-Stachurski, com a solução A, com injeção de H2S no lado de geração de hidrogênio e 0,2M NaOH no lado de detecção. Foi realizado o tratamento dos dados com o método tlag, calculando a difusividade aparente, concentração de hidrogênio no metal e quantidade de sítios de ancoramento de hidrogênio. Também foi utilizado um método de ajuste da curva experimental com a equação obtida a partir da segunda lei de Fick para calcular a difusividade aparente. Foram comparados os valores obtidos com os dois métodos, obtendo-se resultados similares de difusividade aparente. As amostras temperadas foram as que apresentaram menor difusividade aparente, maior concentração de hidrogênio e maior número de sítios de ancoramento. Após o ensaio de resistência ao trincamento induzido por hidrogênio os exames em microscópio óptico mostraram que as amostras de tubos API 5L X65 como recebidas e normalizadas não apresentaram trincamento, já as amostras que passaram por tratamento de têmpera apresentaram trincas. A realização dos ensaios e tratamento dos dados permitiram observar a relação entre a quantidade de interface e a taxa de corrosão: assim a microestrutura martensítica apresenta a maior taxa de corrosão devido a maior quantidade de interfaces. A difusividade de hidrogênio também é afetada por esta mesma microestrutura, por ter maior quantidade de interface e maior número de discordâncias, apresentando menor difusividade aparente, maior concentração de hidrogênio e maior quantidade de sítios de ancoramento, tem-se que a microestrutura de martensita apresenta maior susceptibilidade ao trincamento induzido por hidrogênio. A nucleação e propagação das trincas nesta microestrutura depende de vários mecanismos que atuam simultaneamente: (i) nucleação das microtrincas, (ii) formação de H2 nas microcavidades com aumento da pressão local e (iii) migração de átomos de hidrogênio até a ponta da trinca diminuindo a força coesiva do reticulado facilitando a propagação. No entanto, esta relação entre microestrutura e HIC não pode ser generalizada, pois a susceptibilidade ao trincamento depende tanto da quantidade de sítios de ancoramento, como de sua energia de ligação, localização microestrutural e tamanho destes sítios. Outro fator importante é a presença de regiões de pouca ductilidade onde as trincas nucleadas tenham maior facilidade para sua propagação. Este trabalho contribuiu para o melhor entendimento dos mecanismos que levam à fragilização e danos provocados pelo hidrogênio, mostrando a relação entre microestrutura, corrosão, difusão e trincamento. Permitiu ampliar o conhecimento sobre os testes utilizados para avaliar o desempenho de aços microligados para aplicações em ambientes severos. / Pipelines produced from High Strength Low Alloy steels (HSLA) are a safe and cheap way to transport large quantities of petroleum and gas. HSLA steels offers mechanical and economic advantages. When HSLA steels are exposed to environments containing hydrogen sulphide (H2S), the steel can corrode and generate atomic hydrogen in the surface wich can diffuse and trapped, leading loss of mechanical properties and subsequent failures. The infrastructure to transport oil and gas represent a high cost investment, in adittion, they must be free from degradation processes that can causes severe health and environmental impacts. For this reason, the development of materials with high performance in aggressive environments is required. The aim of this study is to analyze and compare the corrosion behavior, hydrogen permeability and its relation with the susceptibility to Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC) of HSLA steels in environments containing H2S, with emphasis on the influence of microstructure. Normalizing and quenching heat treatments were applied in two different API 5L X65 pipelines for sour service. Three conditions were obtained (as received, normalized and quenched). The as received has a microstructure of ferrite / pearlite and ferrite / acicular ferrite, respectively; the microstructure of normalized specimens consist of ferrite / pearlite and finally quenched steels presented a microstructure of martensite. Solution A (acetic acid containing sodium chloride), according to NACE TM0284-2011 standard and saturated with H2S was used. The materials were tested by linear polarization technique, hydrogen permeability and Hydrogen Induced Cracking test (HIC). HIC tests were performed according to NACE TM0284-2011 standard. Optical microscope and scanning electron microscope were used for microstructural, corrosion and cracking characterization. Rp values show a slight difference between the different samples studied (120 ?.cm2 e 210 ?.cm2); the martensite microstructure (quenched) showed the lower corrosion resistance. Mansfeld (1973) method was used to calculate the corrosion rates from polarization curves. The Tafel slopes are differents between samples making evident the formation of corrosion products. Despite the growth of those corrosion products, the corrosion rate was not affected, since these products are dissolved in the solution A, providing a low corrosion protection. A modified Devanathan-Stachurski cell was used for the hydrogen permeability tests. It was used the solution A, with injection of H2S in the charging cell, and 0.1M NaOH solution on the oxidation cell. The hydrogen effective diffusivity, sub-surface concentration of atomic hydrogen at the charging side and number of hydrogen-trap sites were calculate by tlag method. Moreover, the experimental data were fitted using an equation derived from Fick\'s second law, in order to determinate the diffusion coefficient. The diffusion coefficient obtained from both methods were compare showing similar results. The quenching samples showed the lower diffusion coefficient, higher hydrogen concentration and number of trap sites. The steels in the as received and normalized conditins did not show cracks in Hydrogen Induced Cracking test; in the other hand, quenched samples presents cracks. The results shoed the relationship between the amount of interface and the corrosion rate. Being the martensitic microstructure the one with the higher corrosion rate. The diffusion coefficient in the martensitic microstructure, is a result of the high amount of interfaces and high dislocation density, leading to a lower diffusion coefficient, higher hydrogen concentration and number of trap sites. In the Hydrogen induced Cracking test the martensitic microstructure has shown the lower resistance to crack. The nucleation and propagation of the cracks in martensite depend of mechanisms that may act simultaneously: (i) nucleation of micro-cracks in preferential sites, (ii) formation of H2 in micro-cavities, with increase the local pressure, and (iii) hydrogen migration to the tip of the crack, decreasing the cohesive force in the lattice. However, the relationship between microstructure and Hydrogen Induced Cracking can not be generalized, since the susceptibility to cracking depends of several factors, like number of trap sites, binding trap energy, microstructural distribution and trap sizes. In addition, the presence of regions of low ductility can result in easy cracks nucleation and propagation. This thesis contributed to the understanding of the mechanisms that lead to hydrogen embrittlement and hydrogen damage, showing the relationship between microstructure, corrosion rate, diffusion and cracking, I ncreasing the scientific knowledge about the standard tests actually used to evaluate the performance of microalloyed steels in sour environments.

Τρεις περιοχές της Δυτικής Ελλάδας, στις οποίες είχαν καταγραφεί διαφυγές ρευστών από τον πυθμένα της θάλασσας μελετήθηκαν στα πλαίσια της παρούσας διδακτορικής διατριβής, το υποθαλάσσιο πεδίο κρατήρων διαφυγής ρευστών στον Πατραϊκό κόλπο, το υποθαλάσσιο πεδίο κρατήρων διαφυγής στον Όρμο του Ελαιώνα στο Δυτικό Κορινθιακό κόλπο και οι διαφυγές ρευστών στον κόλπο του Κατακόλου. Η διατριβή βασίζεται στη μελέτη θαλάσσιων γεωφυσικών δεδομένων, στη μελέτη των φυσικοχημικών παραμέτρων της υδάτινης στήλης, στη χημική και ισοτοπική ανάλυση των ρευστών, στη μελέτη των δεδομένων που προέκυψαν από την πρώτη παγκόσμια καταγραφή μακράς περιόδου διαφυγών ρευστών από τον πυθμένα, στη μελέτη των διαφυγών στην παράκτια ζώνη πλησίον των υποθαλάσσιων θέσεων και τέλος στην οπτική παρατήρηση των θέσεων διαφυγών ρευστών. Το πεδίο κρατήρων διαφυγής ρευστών του Πατραϊκού κόλπου σχηματίζεται σε Ολοκαινικές ιλυούχες αποθέσεις που υπέρκεινται Πλειστοκαινικών ιζημάτων, και ελέγχεται από ρηξιγενείς δομές. Το πεδίο κρατήρων διαφυγής ρευστών του Πατραϊκού κόλπου παρουσιάζει μία σχεδόν συνεχή μικροδραστηριότητα η οποία διακόπτεται από παροξυσμικά γεγονότα μεγάλων διαφυγών ρευστών που σχετίζονται με μεγάλους σεισμούς. Το καθεστώς ενεργοποίησης ελέγχεται από το μέγεθος, το επίκεντρο και το είδος του σεισμού. Τα ρευστά που διαφεύγουν είναι αέριοι υδρογονάνθρακες (μεθάνιο μικροβιακής προέλευσης) με ή χωρίς νερό των πόρων των ιζημάτων. Στην παράκτια ζώνη της Πάτρας, πλησίον του πεδίου εντοπίζονται τρεις περιοχές με έντονες διαφυγές αερίων από το έδαφος. Συνολικά η παράκτια ζώνη της Πάτρας, τόσο το χερσαίο όσο και το θαλάσσιο περιβάλλον της, προσφέρει τουλάχιστον 4.7tn μεθανίου ετησίως στην ατμόσφαιρα, με τη μέγιστη προσφορά μεθανίου να μπορεί να φτάσει τους 19 τόννους ετησίως, ενώ μετά από ένα ισχυρό σεισμικό γεγονός εκτιμήθηκε ότι διαφεύγουν 500 κιλά περίπου μεθανίου από το θαλάσσιο πυθμένα σε διάστημα 16 ημερών. Στην περιοχή του Όρμου του Ελαιώνα οι κρατήρες διαφυγής ρευστών σχηματίζονται σε Ολοκαινικές ιλύες και ο πυθμένας των κρατήρων φτάνει στην διεπιφάνεια Ολοκαίνου/Πλειστοκαίνου, με κύριο μηχανισμό σχηματισμού την εκφόρτιση του γλυκού νερού. Οι βενθικές βιοκοινωνίες που εντοπίστηκαν στο εσωτερικό των κρατήρων διαφυγής ρευστών οδηγεί στο συμπέρασμα ότι το υπόγειο νερό, εμπλουτισμένο με θρεπτικά συστατικά και διαλυμένο οξυγόνο δημιουργεί ένα εξαιρετικό οικότοπο για την ανάπτυξη βενθικών οργανισμών. Στην περιοχή του Κατακόλου εντοπίστηκαν και καταγράφηκαν πολύ μεγάλες διαφυγές ρευστών σε τρεις περιοχές, στον Λιμένα Κατακόλου, στη θέση «Φάρος» Κατακόλου και νότια του Λιμένα. Οι έντονες διαφυγές ρευστών, κυρίως θερμογενούς μεθανίου με σημαντικές ποσότητες υδροθείου, φαίνεται να συνδέονται με τις ενεργές διαπυρικές δομές στην περιοχή, που επηρεάζουν τις υπερκείμενες ακολουθίες σχηματίζοντας κανονικά ρήγματα, τα οποία συγκροτούν μία ιδανική δίοδο μετανάστευσης των αερίων από τους Μεσοζωικούς ταμιευτήρες υδρογονανθράκων προς την επιφάνεια. Στην υποθαλάσσια περιοχή του Λιμένα Κατακόλου εκτιμήθηκε ότι η ποσότητα μεθανίου που διαφεύγει από το θαλάσσιο πυθμένα είναι της τάξεως των 1260-1500 τόννων το χρόνο. επικινδυνότητα τόσο για τον άνθρωπο, όσο και τις κατασκευές στην περιοχή του Λιμένα. H υψηλή συγκέντρωση μεθανίου στην ατμόσφαιρα μπορεί να προκαλέσει έκρηξη ή πυρκαγιά, ενώ οι υποθαλάσσιες διαφυγές και η παρουσία αερίων υδρογονανθράκων στα επιφανειακά ιζήματα μπορούν να προκαλέσουν εκρήξεις κατά τη διάρκεια γεωτρήσεων ή να καταστρέψουν θαλάσσιες κατασκευές. Το υδρόθειο είναι το πιο επικίνδυνο και τοξικό γεωρευστό και μπορεί να προκαλέσει σημαντικές ιατρικές βλάβες στον άνθρωπο στις συγκεντρώσεις που μετρήθηκε στην περιοχή του λιμένα. / Three areas in Western Greece studied, where seabed fluid flow have been reported. The dissertation is based on the study of marine geophysical data, on physicochemical parameters of seawater, on chemical and isotopic analysis of fluids, on the study of the data collected during the first long-term monitoring of seabed fluid flow ever done and on the study of the fluid flow on the surroundings inshore areas. The Patras Gulf pockmark field is formed on Holocene muds which overlies Pleistocene coarser sediments and is controlled by normal faults. The Patras Gulf pockmark field is characterized by ‘normal’ micro-activity which is interrupting by high activity periods after strong earthquakes. The fluids that flows from the pockmarks is mainly methane of microbial origin with/or without porewater. An estimation of the total methane that flows from the pockmark field and the surrounding inshore area of the field shows that the methane that leaks to the atmosphere is about 4.7-19 tn/year. After strong earthquakes, when the pockmark field is activated, the estimation of the methane that leaks from the seabed is about 500kgr for a period of 16 days. The Eleonas Bay pockmark field is formed on Holocene muds whereas the base of the pockmarks reaches the Holocene/Pleistocene boundary. The main mechanism for the formation of these pockmarks is the groundwater discharge. Benthic macrofauna that observed on the base of the pockmarks shows that the groundwater which is enriched in nutrients and dissolved oxygen is creating an excellent environment for the growth of benthic fauna. In the area of Katakolo have been observed three areas of enhanced fluid flow offshore and onshore. The studies of these areas have shown that the seeps are caused by thermogenic methane that had accumulated in Mesozoic limestone and had migrated upward through faults, or zones of weakness, induced by salt diapirism. An estimation of the methane that flows from the offshore part of the Katakolo Harbour area have shown that the methane that reaches the atmosphere is about 1260-1500 tn/year. Methane seeps in potentially explosive amounts at the area of the Harbour, and hydrogen sulfide is over the levels necessary to induce toxicological diseases and lethal effects.

O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar e comparar o comportamento quanto à resistência à corrosão, permeabilidade de hidrogênio e sua relação com a susceptibilidade ao trincamento induzido por hidrogênio de aços ARBL, em ambientes contendo H2S, enfatizando a influência da microestrutura. Foram realizados tratamentos térmicos de normalização e têmpera (em água) de dois tipos de tubos API 5L X65 para aplicação sour service, obtendo-se três condições com diferentes microestruturas para cada tubo. Assim, as duas amostras tais como recebidas apresentavam microestruturas de: ferrita/perlita e, o outro, ferrita/ferrita acicular; após tratamento de normalização os dois tipos de amostras apresentaram microestrutura de ferrita/perlita; e, por último, os aços que passaram por têmpera constituíram-se de martensita. O eletrólito empregado foi a solução A (ácido acético contendo cloreto de sódio) da norma NACE TM0284-2011, saturado com H2S. Os materiais foram submetidos a: ensaios de polarização linear para determinação da Resistência de Polarização (Rp), ensaios de permeabilidade de hidrogênio - baseado na ASTM G148-2003 - e ensaios de resistência ao trincamento induzido por hidrogênio (HIC) segundo a norma NACE TM0284-2011; exames em microscópio óptico e eletrônico de varredura para caracterização microestrutural, da morfologia da corrosão e do trincamento. Após os ensaios de polarização linear, foi observada uma diferença pequena dos valores de Rp entre as diferentes amostras estudadas, entre 120 ?.cm2 e 210 ?.cm2; dentro desta faixa, as microestruturas de martensita (aços temperados) apresentaram a menor resistência à corrosão. Foi realizado o tratamento dos dados obtidos por polarização linear com a metodologia desenvolvida por Mansfeld (1973) para cálculo da taxa de corrosão, observando mudanças nos declives de Tafel evidenciando a formação de produtos de corrosão. Apesar da formação destes produtos a taxa de corrosão não foi afetada, já que estes produtos são dissolvidos na solução A, oferecendo uma baixa proteção contra à corrosão. Nos ensaios de permeabilidade de hidrogênio foi utilizada uma célula modificada tipo Devanathan-Stachurski, com a solução A, com injeção de H2S no lado de geração de hidrogênio e 0,2M NaOH no lado de detecção. Foi realizado o tratamento dos dados com o método tlag, calculando a difusividade aparente, concentração de hidrogênio no metal e quantidade de sítios de ancoramento de hidrogênio. Também foi utilizado um método de ajuste da curva experimental com a equação obtida a partir da segunda lei de Fick para calcular a difusividade aparente. Foram comparados os valores obtidos com os dois métodos, obtendo-se resultados similares de difusividade aparente. As amostras temperadas foram as que apresentaram menor difusividade aparente, maior concentração de hidrogênio e maior número de sítios de ancoramento. Após o ensaio de resistência ao trincamento induzido por hidrogênio os exames em microscópio óptico mostraram que as amostras de tubos API 5L X65 como recebidas e normalizadas não apresentaram trincamento, já as amostras que passaram por tratamento de têmpera apresentaram trincas. A realização dos ensaios e tratamento dos dados permitiram observar a relação entre a quantidade de interface e a taxa de corrosão: assim a microestrutura martensítica apresenta a maior taxa de corrosão devido a maior quantidade de interfaces. A difusividade de hidrogênio também é afetada por esta mesma microestrutura, por ter maior quantidade de interface e maior número de discordâncias, apresentando menor difusividade aparente, maior concentração de hidrogênio e maior quantidade de sítios de ancoramento, tem-se que a microestrutura de martensita apresenta maior susceptibilidade ao trincamento induzido por hidrogênio. A nucleação e propagação das trincas nesta microestrutura depende de vários mecanismos que atuam simultaneamente: (i) nucleação das microtrincas, (ii) formação de H2 nas microcavidades com aumento da pressão local e (iii) migração de átomos de hidrogênio até a ponta da trinca diminuindo a força coesiva do reticulado facilitando a propagação. No entanto, esta relação entre microestrutura e HIC não pode ser generalizada, pois a susceptibilidade ao trincamento depende tanto da quantidade de sítios de ancoramento, como de sua energia de ligação, localização microestrutural e tamanho destes sítios. Outro fator importante é a presença de regiões de pouca ductilidade onde as trincas nucleadas tenham maior facilidade para sua propagação. Este trabalho contribuiu para o melhor entendimento dos mecanismos que levam à fragilização e danos provocados pelo hidrogênio, mostrando a relação entre microestrutura, corrosão, difusão e trincamento. Permitiu ampliar o conhecimento sobre os testes utilizados para avaliar o desempenho de aços microligados para aplicações em ambientes severos. / Pipelines produced from High Strength Low Alloy steels (HSLA) are a safe and cheap way to transport large quantities of petroleum and gas. HSLA steels offers mechanical and economic advantages. When HSLA steels are exposed to environments containing hydrogen sulphide (H2S), the steel can corrode and generate atomic hydrogen in the surface wich can diffuse and trapped, leading loss of mechanical properties and subsequent failures. The infrastructure to transport oil and gas represent a high cost investment, in adittion, they must be free from degradation processes that can causes severe health and environmental impacts. For this reason, the development of materials with high performance in aggressive environments is required. The aim of this study is to analyze and compare the corrosion behavior, hydrogen permeability and its relation with the susceptibility to Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC) of HSLA steels in environments containing H2S, with emphasis on the influence of microstructure. Normalizing and quenching heat treatments were applied in two different API 5L X65 pipelines for sour service. Three conditions were obtained (as received, normalized and quenched). The as received has a microstructure of ferrite / pearlite and ferrite / acicular ferrite, respectively; the microstructure of normalized specimens consist of ferrite / pearlite and finally quenched steels presented a microstructure of martensite. Solution A (acetic acid containing sodium chloride), according to NACE TM0284-2011 standard and saturated with H2S was used. The materials were tested by linear polarization technique, hydrogen permeability and Hydrogen Induced Cracking test (HIC). HIC tests were performed according to NACE TM0284-2011 standard. Optical microscope and scanning electron microscope were used for microstructural, corrosion and cracking characterization. Rp values show a slight difference between the different samples studied (120 ?.cm2 e 210 ?.cm2); the martensite microstructure (quenched) showed the lower corrosion resistance. Mansfeld (1973) method was used to calculate the corrosion rates from polarization curves. The Tafel slopes are differents between samples making evident the formation of corrosion products. Despite the growth of those corrosion products, the corrosion rate was not affected, since these products are dissolved in the solution A, providing a low corrosion protection. A modified Devanathan-Stachurski cell was used for the hydrogen permeability tests. It was used the solution A, with injection of H2S in the charging cell, and 0.1M NaOH solution on the oxidation cell. The hydrogen effective diffusivity, sub-surface concentration of atomic hydrogen at the charging side and number of hydrogen-trap sites were calculate by tlag method. Moreover, the experimental data were fitted using an equation derived from Fick\'s second law, in order to determinate the diffusion coefficient. The diffusion coefficient obtained from both methods were compare showing similar results. The quenching samples showed the lower diffusion coefficient, higher hydrogen concentration and number of trap sites. The steels in the as received and normalized conditins did not show cracks in Hydrogen Induced Cracking test; in the other hand, quenched samples presents cracks. The results shoed the relationship between the amount of interface and the corrosion rate. Being the martensitic microstructure the one with the higher corrosion rate. The diffusion coefficient in the martensitic microstructure, is a result of the high amount of interfaces and high dislocation density, leading to a lower diffusion coefficient, higher hydrogen concentration and number of trap sites. In the Hydrogen induced Cracking test the martensitic microstructure has shown the lower resistance to crack. The nucleation and propagation of the cracks in martensite depend of mechanisms that may act simultaneously: (i) nucleation of micro-cracks in preferential sites, (ii) formation of H2 in micro-cavities, with increase the local pressure, and (iii) hydrogen migration to the tip of the crack, decreasing the cohesive force in the lattice. However, the relationship between microstructure and Hydrogen Induced Cracking can not be generalized, since the susceptibility to cracking depends of several factors, like number of trap sites, binding trap energy, microstructural distribution and trap sizes. In addition, the presence of regions of low ductility can result in easy cracks nucleation and propagation. This thesis contributed to the understanding of the mechanisms that lead to hydrogen embrittlement and hydrogen damage, showing the relationship between microstructure, corrosion rate, diffusion and cracking, I ncreasing the scientific knowledge about the standard tests actually used to evaluate the performance of microalloyed steels in sour environments.

Le soufre est présent dans les systèmes pétroliers à la fois sous forme organique et minérale. Il est impliqué dans de nombreuses réactions d'oxydoréduction qui affectent la qualité des huiles (par des réactions de sulfuration ou de désulfuration) et du gaz naturel (par la génération de H2S en contexte de réduction thermochimique des sulfates), ainsi que la porosité des roches réservoirs (par la dissolution de l'anhydrite ou la précipitation de soufre élémentaire ou de pyrobitume). Ces réactions sont gouvernées par la température (et dans une moindre mesure la pression), les conditions d'oxydoréduction et la composition chimique globale du système. La thèse comporte trois parties : (1) une étude thermodynamique des réactions chimiques impliquant le soufre dans les bassins sédimentaires ; (2) une étude expérimentale des réactions de sulfuration et de désulfuration des composés organiques ainsi que de la réduction thermochimique des sulfates; (3) une étude pétrographique et d'inclusions fluides sur des échantillons d'un réservoir carbonaté du bassin Pré-Caspien / Sulfur occurs in petroleum systems as both organic compounds and minerals as well as under different oxidation states. It is involved in a number of redox reactions which may impact the quality of crude oils (through sulfurization or desulfurization reactions) and natural gas (through the generation of H2S during thermochemical sulfate reduction), as well as the petrophysical properties of reservoir rocks (through the dissolution of anhydrite and the precipitation of elemental sulfur and pyrobitumen). These reactions are controlled by temperature (and to a lesser extent pressure), the redox conditions, and the overall chemical composition of the system representing the petroleum reservoir. The thesis consists of three parts: (1) a thermodynamic study of chemical reactions involving sulfur which occur in sedimentary basins; (2) an experimental simulation of sulfurization and desulfurization reactions of organic compounds, as well as of thermochemical sulfate reduction; and (3) a petrographic and fluid inclusion study of carbonate rock samples from a sulfur-rich hydrocarbon reservoir of the northern Caspian Sea

Le sulfure d’hydrogène (H2S) est un gaz malodorant, dangereux, et responsable de la corrosion du béton dans les canalisations d’eaux usées. Ce dernier phénomène est très coûteux pour les collectivités. Le composé H2S est généré sous forme soluble dans les zones anaérobies des réseaux d’assainissement (biofilms, sédiments, zones stagnantes ou conduites forcées) et est ensuite émis dans l’atmosphère des canalisations sous forme gazeuse dans les conduites gravitaires. Des modèles sont nécessaires pour améliorer la conception et la gestion des systèmes de collecte des eaux usées. L’objectif de cette thèse est de mieux comprendre les mécanismes de transfert d’H2S lors de l’écoulement gravitaire d’un liquide saturé en gaz dissous. Nous avons développé des techniques de mesure du coefficient de transfert à l’interface liquide-gaz pour le sulfure d’hydrogène et pour l’oxygène. L’influence des conditions hydrodynamiques (vitesse d’eau), aérauliques (vitesse d’air) et de la surface d’échange a été étudiée dans différentes géométries : une cuve agitée de 5 L et une canalisation de 10 mètres de longueur. Nous avons ainsi pu établir la forte influence de la vitesse d’eau sur le coefficient de transfert global. Cette approche expérimentale a été complétée par une approche de modélisation. En utilisant la mécanique des fluides numérique, nous avons essayé de comprendre l’évolution du coefficient de transfert à partir des fluctuations hydrodynamiques locales observées à proximité de l’interface liquide gaz. Les paramètres les plus pertinents pour expliquer les observations effectuées semblent être les grandeurs liées à la turbulence. L’application future de ce type de corrélation serait l’estimation et la prévision des zones d’émissions d’H2S. Ainsi serait-il possible d’identifier les points nécessitant une surveillance et une maintenance particulière. / Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a harmful and odorous compound which is also responsible for concrete corrosion in sewers. This phenomenon is costly for the communities. H2S is generated in anaerobic zones in sewer networks (biofilms, sediments, forced mains or stagnant zones), and released into the atmosphere under the form of H2S(g) in gravity pipes. Knowledge-based models are needed to improve the design and the management of wastewater collection systems. The objective of this PhD work is to better understand the mass transfer mechanisms of a water flow saturated in H2S when the flow becomes free. We plan to develop a technique to access the global mass transfer coefficient at the liquid- gas interface for H2S and O2. The effect of hydrodynamic, aeraulic conditions and the liquid-gas surface area on the transfer coefficient were studied in different geometries: small batch reactor of 5L and 10 meter sewer pipe device. A strong influence of the flow velocity on the global transfer coefficient was observed. This experimental approach was completed with a numerical approach. The use of computational fluid dynamics permitted to understand the behavior of transfer coefficient from local hydrodynamics fluctuations observed near the liquid/gas interface. The direct application of this kind of correlation would be the estimation of the transfer fluxes and the localization of hazardous areas for H2S concentration. Consequently it could be possible to identify the sensitive zones requiring a follow-up of the system or a strengthening of the structures.