A sample of 383 toy commercials aired on Nickelodeon Sverige were coded over the duration of two weeks concerning the type of toy, gender portrayal, number of children of both gender, the dominant kind of interaction, the dominant kind of setting and gender orientation. The results were then compared with findings from a previous study conducted in the United States that used the same method to determine a possible relationship between the way the commercials were designed and the two countries' levels of gender equality. In Sweden, the much more gender equal country according to Hofstede's dimension of masculinity/femininity, most commercials featured children of both gender and stereotype usage way more rare than in the United States where also most commercials only showed solely girls or solely boys. Judging from these findings a relationship could therefore be found.

States respond to dissent with repressive means to stay in power. However, there are observed variations in how violently this repressive behavior actually is. Drawing on theories using gender inequality as one of the main, but often dismissed, determinants of violence and armed conflict, the thesis hypothesizes that attitudes to gender equality can help explain the variations in state repression. The theoretical argument is grounded in how gender norms characterized by militarized masculinities shape conflict norms since it is related to how ‘others’ in general are treated in society. By employing regression analysis, and testing the relationship between gender equality, operationalized through the Women’s Political Empowerment Index, and state repression in relation to a maximalist campaign, I found statistical support for the hypothesis that at higher levels of gender equality, repression is less likely to be extreme. The results also suggest that previous repressive behavior matters and that the severity of repression depends on the primary method of resistance within the campaign as well. The thesis thus further reinforces the importance of incorporating gender equality when attempting to explain collective violence.

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This thesis contributes to a relatively small but burgeoning body of feminist and critical discourse analytic research into the social construction of gender and gender inequality conducted within critical social psychology. It begins by critically discussing the various theories of gender within the discipline. The thesis is an explicitly political endeavour. As is discussed, all work is political even if it fails to acknowledge this. This research aims to be openly reflexive about its ideological underpinnings and the historical and cultural climate in which the work emerges. Feminist theories of gender are also critically discussed. Having explored the various theories of gender and their relative de/merits, the adopted feminist social constructionist approach is explicated. Such an approach addresses the main failings of other approaches which are variously centred around, for example, inattention to power, language, multiplicity of identities and genders, essentialism, self-contained individualism and the historical, cultural and contextual relativity of meaning. These issues are explicitly attended to through the chosen methodology of critical discourse analysis. Three studies were carried out. All utilise the same analytical methodology but vary in terms of context, focus and data collection method. The first study analyses the interview talk of male psychology undergraduates at a northern English university. The men were found to present themselves, and men generally, as Victims'. The second study aims to address a wide-scale problem in social constructionist work on gender which also afflicts the first study presented here. Whilst theory has shifted away from essentialism, both theoretical and empirical work continues to promote an implicit essentialism by assuming that the biological sex of participants should correspond to the gender of interest (e.g. studying 'men and masculinity'). The second study includes both male and female volunteer interviewees from a similar sample population as the first study. Both sexes were found to be bolstering inequality by constructing a picture of equality between the sexes. This was achieved through three repertoires. One overtly constructed 'equality as imminent/achieved'. Another, the 'women as oppressors/men as victims' repertoire, presents instances of women's capability of inverting men's general power. The third, 'women as manipulators', was only utilised by the women and suggests women have a more covert power which counterbalances men's overt power. This greater focus on discourses and shift away from essentialism, evidenced in the diminished interest given to embodiment and identity, is more fully embraced in the third study which concentrates on an internet discussion board. In this context, embodiment and identity cannot be known with confidence. The discussion board contributors construct men and women as internally homogeneous and oppositional groups. Two repertoires are discussed: 'communication difficulties' and 'the spokesperson'. Men and women are said to find communication between them incredibly difficult. Contradictorily, men and women are solicited for, or take it upon themselves to offer, 'insider' views on their particular sex group. Taken together, the three studies therefore represent quite different contexts, samples, and methodological approaches to the problem of the net inequality between the sexes, and contribute to a growing body of research on how inequality is maintained through linguistic practice in particular contexts.

The thesis film In the Eyes of Others is the result of three-years of research on viewers' fascination with horror films, Brazil televisions' seeming non-stop broadcast of news about crimes of passion, and my study of the link between crimes of passion and domestic violence. The film tells the story of Amanda and Jack, a battered woman and her abusive husband, who, in the eyes of others, seem like the perfect couple. By showing one of the possible tragic outcomes of a life where violence against women is hidden from the eyes of society, my goal with In the Eyes of Others is to advocate the end of violence against women and to promote discussion that will lead us to gender equality.

With inequalities in earnings, employment and economic activity widespread throughout the UK, this thesis examines these inequalities and attempts to explain them. Data from the Living in Wales survey and the Annual Population Survey is used to examine the earnings response to unemployment in the UK, with particular attention paid to Wales and its position relative to other UK regions. Strong evidence of a wage curve is found, and this wage curve is tested over the earnings distribution and levels of centralization. The returns to degrees, masters and PhDs are investigated, with a focus on how returns vary over regions. Large differences are found using a national baseline, but these differences are greatly reduced when regional differences are controlled for. The use of quantile regression techniques suggests that the graduate premium varies little over the earnings distribution. The inequalities m earnings, employment and economic activity are broken down into a component of individual characteristics and a component of area effects. It is found that area effects play a small role, with inequalities driven by individual characteristics. These individual effects are also broken down, with occupation identified as the key driver of inequalities.

Abstract The aim of this essay is to examine if children’s, in this case girls and boys between four and six year old, experiences and perceptions of various occupations follow a gender stereotypical pattern that is distinguishable in the society and that is evidenced by a gender distributed list presented by the Central Bureau of Statistics (SCB 2016). These children’s experiences and perceptions are examined in relation to family and surroundings. The central question is how they describe occupations and occupational-related activities offered in a school and preschool environment from a gender perspective. These children’s experiences and perceptions are also examined in relation to how they describe their career-related aspirations. Our study is theoretically based upon two different alignments of the gender theory that describe the social construction of gender. The data collection is based on 7 group interviews with 31 children from one preschool class and two different preschools. The results of our study indicate that the children have occupational experience that they relate to family members and/or to their immediate surroundings. The majority of the children’s experiences show that chores are distributed equally within the family and are therefore described as genus neutral. However, the majority of the children's occupational experience is gender-influenced, thus following the gender segregated labor market outlined by Central Bureau of Statistics (2016) list. Their own occupational aspirations also show that they follow this gender stereotypical pattern. The study emphasizes that the children are active agents in their development of gender identity and that their gender identity appears more clearly in specific contexts. On the other hand, we see that girls are more eager to extend the limits of the female arena. Another important aspect that the study shows is that the occupational activities offered in the school and preschool activities have a positive impact on how children distinguish their own ability. This can increase their ability to feel that they can do it if they really want to!

En matière de travail, la discrimination est une atteinte aux droits humains notamment les principes et droits fondamentaux garantis par l'Organisation Internationale du Travail (OIT) à travers sa Constitution (1919) et surtout la Convention N°100 (1951) portant sur l'égalité de rémunération entre homme et femme pour un travail de valeur égale, et, la Convention N°111 (1958) relative à l'élimination de la discrimination en matière d'emploi et de profession. La pratique de la discrimination dans les Etats africains semble être liée au contexte de pauvreté et d'exclusion alimentant les sentiments d'injustice ou d'inégalité entre homme et femme, entre les travailleurs en fonction, les travailleurs potentiels et les employeurs. Parmi les victimes de ce fléau, les femmes sont les plus exposées en toute méconnaissance des normes nationales et internationales de protection de leurs droits ; il y a aussi les personnes appartenant aux minorités, et, certaines personnes marquées par des caractéristiques particulières dont l'ethnie, l'origine familiale ou politique. Elles sont confrontées à de nouvelles formes de discrimination qui présentent des caractères plus subtiles. Ce travail de recherche analyse alors les mécanismes de gestion par l'OIT de la discrimination au travail dans les Etats africains lorsque survient un différend fondé sur le sexe ou la race d'un travailleur. En faisant ressortir la pertinence des procédés politique et juridique de gestion par l'OIT de la discrimination au travail, cette étude montre que des facteurs socioculturels, le manque de volonté politique et la fragilité de la culture juridique favorisent considérablement les difficultés d'application effective du principe de non-discrimination au travail dans certains Etats africains. Elle apprécie l'efficacité des deux procédés tout en insistant sur leur caractère complémentaire. Dès lors, ce travail vient contribuer d'une part, à la recherche de solutions aux conflits sociaux qui naissent des inégalités homme/femme et des exclusions ethniques sur le lieu de travail ; et d'autre part, à aider à comprendre les comportements des acteurs et des agents sociaux ainsi que les enjeux dans l'organisation et l'administration du travail dans les Etats africains notamment lorsque s'imbriquent des intérêts divergents. / In the matter of labour, discrimination is a violation of Human Rights particularly the principles and fundamental rights guaranteed by the International Labour Organisation (ILO) through its Constitution (1919) and especially Convention No. 100 (1951) related to the equal remuneration between men and women for a work of an equal value, and Convention No. 111 (1958) on the elimination of discrimination in employment and occupation. The practice of discrimination in African countries seems to be related to the context of poverty and exclusion entertaining feelings of injustice or inequality between men and women, between workers in a same office, between potential workers and employers. Among the victims of this scourge, women are most at risk in any breach of national and international standards of protection of their rights ; there are also persons belonging to minorities, and marked by some special features including ethnicity, family origin or political affiliation. They face new forms of discrimination that are more subtle. This research then analyzes the ILO's management mechanisms on discrimination at work in some African countries when there is a litigation based on a worker's sex or race. Highlighting the relevance of the ILO's political and legal processes of management on discrimination at work, this study attests that socio-cultural factors, lack of political will and the deficiency of the legal culture greatly enhance the difficulties of application of the principle of non-discrimination at work in some African countries. It also assesses the effectiveness of both methods while emphasizing on their complementary nature. Therefore, this research is to contribute firstly, to look for solutions to social conflicts that arise from male/female inequalities and ethnic exclusion in the workplace, and secondly, to help understand the actors and social agents' behavior and the issues in the organization and administration of labour in African countries such as overlap of interests.

Title: Nudging towards gender equality: An application of social norms to explain female increasement in corporate boards.   Authors: Freja Redder Petersson & Ida Eklund   Level: Master thesis, 30 hp    Keywords: Nudging, Social norms, Gender equality, Corporate boards Background: Sweden is regarded as one of the leading countries when it comes to gender equality, but women are still underrepresented in corporate boards in the private sector. Research argues that increasing the female representation is beneficial for companies, and it seems as if the people in the boards need to change their behavior in order to better themselves in the matter. To change behavior, social norms can be used, and in relation to this, the concept of nudgingas a way of changing behavior is a new and interesting field to look at, particularly in relationship to increasing female representation in boards.    Research question: What is affecting corporate boards in the private sector to increase their female representation and to what extent is this connected to nudging?   Purpose: The purpose of this study is to describe how corporate boards view gender equality, explain important factors in the process of gender equality work. Further, the aim is to develop and broaden the academic field of nudging by uncovering nudge-related influences in regard to an increasement of women in corporate boards.   Method: A qualitative research method was used in this study, by semi-structured interviews with ten respondents from various boards in the private sector in Sweden, and one expert in the research field. The respondent companies were chosen because of their gender equal boards.    Theoretical Framework: Theories about how corporate boards function, gender equality work and effects of women entrance in boards are presented. Followed by behavioral economic-theories focusing on rational and irrational behaviors which derived the concept of nudging that are lastly discussed. Within nudging, choice architecture, social norms and loss aversion are addressed.      Findings: In this study, the findings of what is affecting corporate boards in the private sector to increase their female representation is divided into two approaches. The first implies that the so-called nudge-related influences are affecting the boards, primarily with the factors of choice architecture, social norms and legal norms. These factors have been found to be greatly connected to nudging. The second approach shows the finding that two other influences, power and competence, also affects corporate boards to increase their female representation and move towards gender equality.

The municipalities are important actors in the struggle to achieve gender equality. The main purpose of this study is to compare two municipalities, one with a higher representation of women and one with a lower representation in the political assemblies. We want to determine if there´s a difference in the way that the municipalities approach and define their gender equality work. To answer these questions we have divided our study into three different analyses. Based on previous research, our hypothesis is that in the municipality with a higher degree of women's representation, gender equality will be mentioned more often in political meetings (analysis one). We also assume that this municipality will have a more norm-critical approach in it´s gender equality plan (analysis two) and that the result will be reflected in the municipality's annual report (analysis three). The method of this study is a comparative analysis based on the most similar system design. The municipalities studied are Gällivare, which has a high representation of women and Arboga that has a low representation of women in the political assemblies. The overall findings of the first two analyses indicate that women´s representation doesn’t have a positive impact on how often gender equality is adressed and that women´s representation doesn´t lead to a more norm-critical approach in the gender equality plan. The results of the third analysis doesn´t reflect the result of the first two. On the contrary it indicates that the representation of women actually can have an effect on the municipality's gender equality focus. When all three of the analyses are taken into account we find that neither of the municipalities prioritize gender equality work.