Continuous changes along with the increased pressure to perform may result in feelings of distrust, strain in interpersonal relations, psychological strain, fatigue and tension, all affecting the well-being of employees. Tracking and addressing the effectiveness of employees in the work context in areas that could impact on the standard of their services is important. Burnout and work engagement are specific focus areas in this regard. To measure burnout and work engagement, it is important to use reliable and valid instruments. However, there is a lack of empirical research systematically investigating burnout and work engagement in South Africa, as well as serious limitations, including poorly designed studies, a lack of sophisticated statistical analyses and poorly controlled studies. Furthermore, South Africa is a multicultural society and therefore, when burnout and work engagement measures are applied to different cultural groups, issues of equivalence become important. The objectives of this study were to standardise the MBI-GS and UWES for employees in an insurance company and to determine equivalence for each instrument, to determine the occupational stressors experienced and demographic differences in terms of the experience of occupational stressors and to test a causal model of work wellness consisting of burnout, work engagement, job demands, job resources, health, optimism and intention to leave. The research method for each of the three articles consists of a brief literature review and an empirical study. A cross-sectional survey design was used. An availability sample (N = 613) fiom employees in an insurance company was taken. The Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey (MBI-GS), Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), Life Orientation Test - Revised (LOT-R), An Organisational Stress Screening Tool (ASSET), Job Characteristics Scale (JCS) and a biographical questionnaire were administered. The statistical analysis was carried out with the help of the SAS program and AMOS. The statistical methods utilised in the three articles consisted of descriptive statistics, Cronbach alpha coefficients, inter-item correlations, Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients and structural equation modelling methods. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was also utilised to determine differences between the subgroups of the sample. Structural equation modelling confirmed a three-factor model of burnout, consisting of exhaustion, cynicism and professional efficacy. The three-factor model of work engagement represented the data quite well after certain items had been replaced due to semantic differences. The MBI-GS and UWES both showed acceptable internal consistencies. Construct equivalence for different language groups were confumed for the MBI-GS and UWES. The continuous exposure to things like change, competitiveness and rivalry may result in feelings of stress. Stress may have a negative impact on the health and well-being of individuals. Physical and psychological ill health was found to be the major outcome of stress for employees. Commitment moderated the effect of occupational stress on ill health. Specific occupational stressors indicated in an insurance company had to do with performance management, job characteristics, redundancy of skills and remuneration. Biographical factors (i.e. department, level, years' experience) had an impact on the experience of occupational stressors. A one-factor, four-factor and three-factor wellness model was tested. The three-factor model, comprising exhaustion and cynicism loading on burnout and a combined work engagement (vigour and dedication) dimension, provided the best fit with the data. The causal model of work wellness provides support for the COBE model, assuming job demands and job resources. A lack of job resources increases the levels of burnout of employees, as well as the intention to leave the organisation. The availability of job resources increases the levels of work engagement. Employees who experience excessive workloads are likely to develop high levels of burnout which, in turn, may lead to health problems. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Harsh realities exist in the South African Police Service (SAPS) that require concepts such as burnout and work engagement to be studied in the context of work-related well-being. Although these difficulties relate to police officials experiencing work-related trauma, more stressors seem to manifest on an organisational level, which in turn affects the psychological well-being of police officials. This study seeks to focus on the burnout and engagement of members of the Local Criminal and Record Centre (LCRC) in the SAPS. The members of the LCRC are exposed to severe occupational stressors relating to their job content, which necessitates research in occupational stress relating to the health of SAPS members. For the purposes of this study, the model of occupational stress, commitment and ill health of Cartwright and Cooper (2002) will be utilised to explain strain and organisational commitment. Work-related well-being, on the other hand, can best be explained by referring to the model of well-being developed by Schaufeli and Bakker (200 1 ). Since job demands play a central role in burnout, it is necessary to implement preventive organisationally-based strategies to address high job demands. Upon reviewing stress research, it became clear that a serious lack of intervention research exists. Little information is available about the work-related well-being of SAPS members, whilst no documented research could be found regarding the effects of an intervention programme on the work-related well-being of LCRC members. The study aimed at utilising three levels of intervention (primary, secondary and tertiary) on organisational and individual level. An integrated classification scheme of both the positive and negative aspects of work-related well-being on the organisational and individual level was developed and presented to members from the LCRC over a one-year period. The research method for each of the three articles of this study consisted of a brief literature review and an empirical study. An availability non-randomised sample was selected because the entire in-tact group of the LCRC of the SAPS (N=111) in the North West Province was included in the study. A survey design was used to achieve the research objectives of both Articles 1 and 2, whilst a longitudinal survey design was utilised in Article 3, where the same instruments were administered at two different times (over a one-year period) to the same group of participants. The measuring instruments used in this study are the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS), Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), Job Demands-Resources Scale (JDRS), Health subscales, Organisational Commitment subscales, the ASSET questionnaire and a biographical questionnaire. Structural equation modelling was implemented to test a structural model of work-related wellbeing. A good fit was found for the model in which perceived job demands contributed to burnout which, in turn, impacted on ill health. Work wellness was determined by the relationship between two opposite constructs, namely burnout and engagement. The work-related well-being of members of the LCRC was affected by an environment of high job demands and inadequate resources. In Article 2, multiple regression analyses showed that occupational stress explained 19% of the variance in psychological ill health and 17% of the variance in physical ill health. A two-step multiple regression analysis conducted with the variables in their continuous form revealed that control was a statistically significant predictor of both physical and psychological ill health, while job overload statistically significantly predicted psychological ill health. Occupational stress also explained 17% of the variance in individual commitment and 16% of the variance in organisational commitment. It was concluded that individual commitment moderated the effects of stressful work relations on ill health. LCRC members portrayed a high risk to fall ill due to exhaustion; they were less enthusiastic about their job and tended to derive a lower sense of significance from their work. In addition, members showed a major risk for developing low affective commitment due to low work engagement. Exhaustion influenced the way members view their job demands, organisational and social support, as well as growth opportunities available to them. A lack of advancement opportunities and job insecurity contributed to feelings of exhaustion and cynicism. Another objective of this study was to evaluate interventions used to promote work-related wellbeing of LCRC members. Although no significant differences were found between the pre- and post-measurements, some positive aspects did flow from the interventions. For instance an active effort by management to address resource needs. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

The continuous alignment of human resource strategies, activities. processes and competencies within an ever-changing business environment poses certain challenges for the human resource profession in a global petrochemical industry. Modem business managers have realised the necessity of work wellness initiatives and that a relationship exists between employee wellness and business results, but very few companies measure whether such initiatives actually had any impact on work performance. Defining performance indicators and competence models for human resource practitioners has developed into a dynamic activity. Adaptation to continuously changing business needs has the potential to create a sense of incompetence, exhaustion, decreased motivation and dysfunctional work attitudes, collective1y defined as burnout. This highlights the need to identify and research psychological constructs that hold predictable value for the ability of human resource practitioners to prevent and overcome burnout by generating sufficient emotional energy to adapt to changing business needs, acquiring strategic human resource competencies to increase their feelings of professional efficacy and increasing their contribution towards organisational performance. The objective of this study was to determine perceived importance and actual performance of human resource practitioners in a global petrochemical company in terms of human resource roles, and to determine the influence of work wellness (burnout, engagement and workaholism) on the perceived value adding contribution of human resource practitioners in a global petrochemical company. The research method for each of the three articles of this study consisted of a brief literature review and an empirical study. Stratified samples were taken of human resource personnel (N = 128) and their internal line customers (N = 67). The measuring instruments used in this study included the Ulrich Human Resource Role Assessment Survey (HRRAS), Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS), Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) and the Workaholism Scale. Article I compared perceptions of human resource practitioners and their internal customers regarding expected and actual contributions of human resource practitioners towards business performance in a global petrochemical company. It was found that human resource practitioners and their line customers are in agreement concerning the importance of the human resource roles that enable business performance, indicating that human resource practitioners have a good understanding of their job requirements. Both human resource practitioners and their line customers perceived the performance of human resource practitioners as average, which is lower than the expected level of performance as indicated by importance scales. In Article 2, a correlation study revealed that burnout (Exhaustion, Professional Efficacy and Cynicism) statistically significantly predicted the perceived level of performance of human resource practitioners in the organisation. It was found that Cynicism was a statistically significant predictor of the perceived level of performance of human resource practitioners in the organisation in terms of all the human resource roles (Strategic Partnering, Administrative Support, Employee Support and Change Management). Vigour and Dedication statistically significantly predicted perceived performance on the Administrative Support role. In Article 3, a three-factor model of workaholism (consisting of Compulsiveness, Involvement and Overwork) was found which showed positive relationship with burnout factors. Statistical analysis indicated that workaholism factors of the Workaholism Scale practically significantly correlate. Multiple regression analysis showed that burnout and workaholism factors can explain perceptions of human resource practitioner performance. Recommendations were made for future research. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Most employers agree that the effectiveness and success of their organisations depend on the effective utilisation of their human resources. Ill health in the workplace is a threat to optimal productivity, reduced absenteeism, provision of sustainable employee benefits, a motivated workforce, staff retention and maximisation of profits. Burnout and engagement are therefore important fields of investigation in the industrial psychology field. The aim of this study was to: test a model of work-related well-being; develop and evaluate a resilience intervention programme for a large financial services institution in South Africa. Article 1 used a cross-sectional survey design. The participants were predominantly in the administrative, call centre and IT divisions (N = 192). Article 2 was the development of a resilience model, which was based on the integration of thinking from an extensive literature review by the researcher. Article 3 used an experimental design, with a control group (n=51) and an experimental group («=55). Information was collected in a longitudinal research. The research method for each of the three articles of this study consisted of a brief literature review and an empirical study. The measuring instruments used in this study were the Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey (MBI-GS), Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), Job Demands-Resources Scale (JD-RS), Health subscales, Organisational Commitment subscales, the ASSET questionnaire, the Life Orientation Test - Revised (LOT-R) and a biographical questionnaire. In both article 1 and article 3, descriptive statistics were computed to describe the data; as were Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients to specify the relationship between the variables. In article 1, multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the proportion of variance in the dependent variable that is predicted by the independent variables. In article 3, paired-samples f-tests were used to determine the difference in results for year 1 and year 2. Article 1 showed the central role that low optimism plays in contributing to burnout, and high optimism plays in work engagement. Interestingly, high social support was linked to increased cynicism, whilst low social support contributed to dedication. Burnout contributed to both physical and psychological ill health. Dedication and low cynicism contributed to affective commitment, whilst engagement and low cynicism contributed to behavioural commitment. Article 2 was the development of a multidimensional, proactive coping approach which consistently strives to develop and enhance the individual's resilience coping reservoir pools (mental, spiritual, socio-emotional and physical) leading to improved resilience, wellness and quality of life. Each reservoir pool has activities that enhance the fitness of the individual, namely physical (rest and relaxation, exercise and nutrition), mental (stimuli, reflection and empowering thinking), spiritual (coat of arms, pay it forward and gratitude), socio-emotional (breaking destructive relationships and nurturing relationships, responsibility). Article 3's results showed that the resilience intervention resulted in a statistically significant difference decrease in psychological ill health. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Emergency work is considered to be one of the most demanding occupations with significant social, physical and psychological consequences for the well-being of the emergency worker. Burnout, as well as its antithesis, work engagement, are two possible transactional outcomes impacting on the well-being of the emergency worker. Measurement of burnout and work engagement requires valid, reliable and culturally fair measuring instruments. However, research on burnout and work engagement in South Africa are characterised by poorly designed studies, a lack of sophisticated statistical analyses and poorly controlled studies. Furthermore, research paucity in terms of burnout and work engagement seems to prevail in the multicultural South African emergency worker context. A lack of norms for the Maslach Burnout Inventory – Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS), as well as the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) makes the identification of burnout and engagement in the emergency services difficult. Consequently, investigating the reliability, validity, equivalence and bias would result in the standardisation of the MBI-HSS and the UWES, suitable for use in the multicultural emergency work setting. Amongst the factors that could play a role in the prevalence of burnout and work engagement are stress because of the demands of a job, a lack of job resources, as well as dispositional variables such as affect and situational variables, such as coping strategies. The operationalisation of occupational stress for emergency workers as well as information in terms of the standardisation of measurement of coping strategies for emergency workers in the South African context are lacking in the literature. The objectives of this research were to standardise the MBI-HSS, UWES and Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced (COPE) and to develop a valid and reliable occupational stress measure for emergency workers in South Africa. Another objective of the current study was to develop and test a causal model of burnout and work engagement of emergency workers, including occupational stress, coping strategies and affect. Finally, moderating effects of coping strategies and affect with regards to burnout and work engagement were tested for. The research method was by means of five separate articles, each consisting of a brief literature overview and an empirical study. A cross-sectional survey design was used. An accidental sample of emergency workers in Gauteng (N = 405) was used. The MBI-HSS, UWES, Emergency Worker Stress Inventory (EWSI), COPE, Affectometer 2 (AFM) and a biographical questionnaire were administered. Descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, correlations, principal component factor extraction, exploratory factor analysis with target rotations, canonical analysis, multiple regression analysis and structural equation modelling were used. Structural equation modelling confirmed 3-factor models of burnout (Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalisation and Personal Accomplishment) as well as work engagement (Vigour, Dedication and Absorption). Internal consistency for the MBI-HSS and UWES was confirmed. Construct inequivalence was found for the Nguni group but not for the Afrikaans, English and Sotho groups. Item bias analysis revealed evidence of both uniform and no uniform bias for some items of the MBI-HSS, while no uniform bias was found for the UWES. In terms of the EWSI, a 3-factor structure was obtained by means of principal factor extraction with varimax rotation, namely lack of resources, job demands and inherent emergency work stressors. Principal factor extraction on the COPE revealed four factors, namely problem-focused coping, seeking social support, passive coping and turning to religion. Both the EWSI and COPE were found to be internally consistent. Construct equivalence was obtained for the Afrikaans, English and Sotho groups, but not for the Nguni group. Evidence of uniform bias was found for the EWSI, whereas no uniform bias was found for the COPE. Structural equation analysis showed that the lack of resources predicted the core of burnout, namely emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation. Problem-focused coping predicted personal accomplishment, while positive affect predicted emotional exhaustion. Work engagement was related to low burnout scores. Depersonalisation was associated with work engagement. Recommendations for the organisation and future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, 2003.

Work context has many consequences for the psychological outcomes of employees. These outcomes also have consequences for the employer through possible loss of productivity, impaired health of employees which may be associated with absenteeism and turnover intention, among others. The literature also shows that these outcomes are not always the same even under similar working conditions. Theorising in cognitive psychology indicates that the way in which an individual appraises a situation may be more important to psychological outcomes than the actual presence of a stressor. Recently, personal resources have been hypothesised to influence these individual differences. Few if any studies have explored such personal resources as moderators in the relationship between work context and psychological outcomes, especially in the South African public service context. Thus, the general aim of this study was to determine whether personal resources (emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and explanatory styles) are moderators in the relationship between work context Gob demands and job resources) and psychological outcomes (psychological well-being and work engagement) in a sample of government employees. A cross-sectional survey research design was implemented. Data were collected from 459 participants with the following measuring instruments, the Job-Demands Resources (JD-R) Scale, the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), the Affectomemter-2 Short-form (AFM.), the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) , the Emotional Intelligence Scale (ElS), the General Self-efficacy (GSE) scale, and the Explanatory Style (ES) Questionnaire. A demographic questionnaire was developed by the first author to capture diverse information from the participants relating to gender, turnover intention, post level and so forth. Analyses were conducted mainly in 2 steps. Firstly, multiple regression analyses were used to test the main effects of work context variables on psychological outcomes. Secondly, two-step hierarchical regression analyses were used to test whether personal resources (emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and explanatory styles) moderated the relationship between work context variables and psychological outcomes. Before testing the moderation, all independent variables and moderator variables (dimensions of personal resources) were centred so as to exclude the possibility of any multicollinearity in the regression equation. The results of the study, reported in three articles/manuscripts, showed significant main effects for work context and the personal resources as predictors of psychological outcomes. In the second place, the results also showed that the personal resources used in this study moderate the relationship between work context and psychological outcomes. In the first article, it was concluded that emotional intelligence is of potential value, especially in the public sector that is focussed on optimal service delivery, and where emotional encounters are stock-in-trade. Emotional intelligence is a valuable personal resource to cultivate for establishing, developing, and maintaining positive outcomes in psychological well-being in the workplace. In the second article, it was concluded that as self-efficacy beliefs facilitate actions and behaviour taken by individuals, it is important that feedback and modelling could play an important role especially in service-oriented work contexts that may need self-regulation of emotions. In the third article, it was concluded that as attributional feedback can induce change in how individuals perceive their success or failure in a task, the role of explanatory styles in psychological outcomes could be cultivated through active feedback given to employees on their performance and possibilities of future growth in the organisation. Overall it was concluded that a lack of job resources in the presence of high job demands will undermine psychological outcomes even in the presence of personal resources. Therefore, the consequences for health impairment and negative outcomes cannot be over-emphasised in a situation where job demands outstrip job resources. Employees in the public service require skills such as social and emotional competency, self-efficacy and optimism as these are important tools in dealing with the public. Employees must have initiative, flexibility, motivation to achieve, empathy, self-esteem and confidence, self-control, and group management among fellow employees and the public that is served by them. Although the limitations for this study are related to the fact that it was a cross-sectional research design and data was collected using self-reports, insights were gained about the role of personal resources in the relationship between work context and psychological outcomes. Based on all three articles, it was recommended that cross lagged panel studies may be useful in further clarifying the role of personal resources in longitudinal studies about the relationship between job resources and psychological outcomes and possible upward spirals arising from facilitating these relationships. Aspects of such studies may also include a qualitative assessment of what participants perceive as job resources and personal resources and these help them to achieve their goals. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Most employers agree that the effectiveness and success of their organisations depend on the effective utilisation of their human resources. Ill health in the workplace is a threat to optimal productivity, reduced absenteeism, provision of sustainable employee benefits, a motivated workforce, staff retention and maximisation of profits. Burnout and engagement are therefore important fields of investigation in the industrial psychology field. The aim of this study was to: test a model of work-related well-being; develop and evaluate a resilience intervention programme for a large financial services institution in South Africa. Article 1 used a cross-sectional survey design. The participants were predominantly in the administrative, call centre and IT divisions (N = 192). Article 2 was the development of a resilience model, which was based on the integration of thinking from an extensive literature review by the researcher. Article 3 used an experimental design, with a control group (n=51) and an experimental group («=55). Information was collected in a longitudinal research. The research method for each of the three articles of this study consisted of a brief literature review and an empirical study. The measuring instruments used in this study were the Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey (MBI-GS), Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), Job Demands-Resources Scale (JD-RS), Health subscales, Organisational Commitment subscales, the ASSET questionnaire, the Life Orientation Test - Revised (LOT-R) and a biographical questionnaire. In both article 1 and article 3, descriptive statistics were computed to describe the data; as were Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients to specify the relationship between the variables. In article 1, multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the proportion of variance in the dependent variable that is predicted by the independent variables. In article 3, paired-samples f-tests were used to determine the difference in results for year 1 and year 2. Article 1 showed the central role that low optimism plays in contributing to burnout, and high optimism plays in work engagement. Interestingly, high social support was linked to increased cynicism, whilst low social support contributed to dedication. Burnout contributed to both physical and psychological ill health. Dedication and low cynicism contributed to affective commitment, whilst engagement and low cynicism contributed to behavioural commitment. Article 2 was the development of a multidimensional, proactive coping approach which consistently strives to develop and enhance the individual's resilience coping reservoir pools (mental, spiritual, socio-emotional and physical) leading to improved resilience, wellness and quality of life. Each reservoir pool has activities that enhance the fitness of the individual, namely physical (rest and relaxation, exercise and nutrition), mental (stimuli, reflection and empowering thinking), spiritual (coat of arms, pay it forward and gratitude), socio-emotional (breaking destructive relationships and nurturing relationships, responsibility). Article 3's results showed that the resilience intervention resulted in a statistically significant difference decrease in psychological ill health. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Emergency work is considered to be one of the most demanding occupations with significant social, physical and psychological consequences for the well-being of the emergency worker. Burnout, as well as its antithesis, work engagement, are two possible transactional outcomes impacting on the well-being of the emergency worker. Measurement of burnout and work engagement requires valid, reliable and culturally fair measuring instruments. However, research on burnout and work engagement in South Africa are characterised by poorly designed studies, a lack of sophisticated statistical analyses and poorly controlled studies. Furthermore, research paucity in terms of burnout and work engagement seems to prevail in the multicultural South African emergency worker context. A lack of norms for the Maslach Burnout Inventory – Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS), as well as the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) makes the identification of burnout and engagement in the emergency services difficult. Consequently, investigating the reliability, validity, equivalence and bias would result in the standardisation of the MBI-HSS and the UWES, suitable for use in the multicultural emergency work setting. Amongst the factors that could play a role in the prevalence of burnout and work engagement are stress because of the demands of a job, a lack of job resources, as well as dispositional variables such as affect and situational variables, such as coping strategies. The operationalisation of occupational stress for emergency workers as well as information in terms of the standardisation of measurement of coping strategies for emergency workers in the South African context are lacking in the literature. The objectives of this research were to standardise the MBI-HSS, UWES and Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced (COPE) and to develop a valid and reliable occupational stress measure for emergency workers in South Africa. Another objective of the current study was to develop and test a causal model of burnout and work engagement of emergency workers, including occupational stress, coping strategies and affect. Finally, moderating effects of coping strategies and affect with regards to burnout and work engagement were tested for. The research method was by means of five separate articles, each consisting of a brief literature overview and an empirical study. A cross-sectional survey design was used. An accidental sample of emergency workers in Gauteng (N = 405) was used. The MBI-HSS, UWES, Emergency Worker Stress Inventory (EWSI), COPE, Affectometer 2 (AFM) and a biographical questionnaire were administered. Descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, correlations, principal component factor extraction, exploratory factor analysis with target rotations, canonical analysis, multiple regression analysis and structural equation modelling were used. Structural equation modelling confirmed 3-factor models of burnout (Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalisation and Personal Accomplishment) as well as work engagement (Vigour, Dedication and Absorption). Internal consistency for the MBI-HSS and UWES was confirmed. Construct inequivalence was found for the Nguni group but not for the Afrikaans, English and Sotho groups. Item bias analysis revealed evidence of both uniform and no uniform bias for some items of the MBI-HSS, while no uniform bias was found for the UWES. In terms of the EWSI, a 3-factor structure was obtained by means of principal factor extraction with varimax rotation, namely lack of resources, job demands and inherent emergency work stressors. Principal factor extraction on the COPE revealed four factors, namely problem-focused coping, seeking social support, passive coping and turning to religion. Both the EWSI and COPE were found to be internally consistent. Construct equivalence was obtained for the Afrikaans, English and Sotho groups, but not for the Nguni group. Evidence of uniform bias was found for the EWSI, whereas no uniform bias was found for the COPE. Structural equation analysis showed that the lack of resources predicted the core of burnout, namely emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation. Problem-focused coping predicted personal accomplishment, while positive affect predicted emotional exhaustion. Work engagement was related to low burnout scores. Depersonalisation was associated with work engagement. Recommendations for the organisation and future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, 2003.

Work context has many consequences for the psychological outcomes of employees. These outcomes also have consequences for the employer through possible loss of productivity, impaired health of employees which may be associated with absenteeism and turnover intention, among others. The literature also shows that these outcomes are not always the same even under similar working conditions. Theorising in cognitive psychology indicates that the way in which an individual appraises a situation may be more important to psychological outcomes than the actual presence of a stressor. Recently, personal resources have been hypothesised to influence these individual differences. Few if any studies have explored such personal resources as moderators in the relationship between work context and psychological outcomes, especially in the South African public service context. Thus, the general aim of this study was to determine whether personal resources (emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and explanatory styles) are moderators in the relationship between work context Gob demands and job resources) and psychological outcomes (psychological well-being and work engagement) in a sample of government employees. A cross-sectional survey research design was implemented. Data were collected from 459 participants with the following measuring instruments, the Job-Demands Resources (JD-R) Scale, the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), the Affectomemter-2 Short-form (AFM.), the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) , the Emotional Intelligence Scale (ElS), the General Self-efficacy (GSE) scale, and the Explanatory Style (ES) Questionnaire. A demographic questionnaire was developed by the first author to capture diverse information from the participants relating to gender, turnover intention, post level and so forth. Analyses were conducted mainly in 2 steps. Firstly, multiple regression analyses were used to test the main effects of work context variables on psychological outcomes. Secondly, two-step hierarchical regression analyses were used to test whether personal resources (emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and explanatory styles) moderated the relationship between work context variables and psychological outcomes. Before testing the moderation, all independent variables and moderator variables (dimensions of personal resources) were centred so as to exclude the possibility of any multicollinearity in the regression equation. The results of the study, reported in three articles/manuscripts, showed significant main effects for work context and the personal resources as predictors of psychological outcomes. In the second place, the results also showed that the personal resources used in this study moderate the relationship between work context and psychological outcomes. In the first article, it was concluded that emotional intelligence is of potential value, especially in the public sector that is focussed on optimal service delivery, and where emotional encounters are stock-in-trade. Emotional intelligence is a valuable personal resource to cultivate for establishing, developing, and maintaining positive outcomes in psychological well-being in the workplace. In the second article, it was concluded that as self-efficacy beliefs facilitate actions and behaviour taken by individuals, it is important that feedback and modelling could play an important role especially in service-oriented work contexts that may need self-regulation of emotions. In the third article, it was concluded that as attributional feedback can induce change in how individuals perceive their success or failure in a task, the role of explanatory styles in psychological outcomes could be cultivated through active feedback given to employees on their performance and possibilities of future growth in the organisation. Overall it was concluded that a lack of job resources in the presence of high job demands will undermine psychological outcomes even in the presence of personal resources. Therefore, the consequences for health impairment and negative outcomes cannot be over-emphasised in a situation where job demands outstrip job resources. Employees in the public service require skills such as social and emotional competency, self-efficacy and optimism as these are important tools in dealing with the public. Employees must have initiative, flexibility, motivation to achieve, empathy, self-esteem and confidence, self-control, and group management among fellow employees and the public that is served by them. Although the limitations for this study are related to the fact that it was a cross-sectional research design and data was collected using self-reports, insights were gained about the role of personal resources in the relationship between work context and psychological outcomes. Based on all three articles, it was recommended that cross lagged panel studies may be useful in further clarifying the role of personal resources in longitudinal studies about the relationship between job resources and psychological outcomes and possible upward spirals arising from facilitating these relationships. Aspects of such studies may also include a qualitative assessment of what participants perceive as job resources and personal resources and these help them to achieve their goals. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Thesis (MCom)--Stellenbosch University, 2015 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT : The industrial psychology literature related to call centres highlights the negative aspects of call centre work environments and the resultant adverse impact on workers’ well-being. Call centres have been labelled the “coal mines of the 21st century”, “assembly lines in the head” and “satanic mills” (Janse van Rensburg, Boonzaier, & Boonzaier, 2013, p. 2). High levels of stress, high staff turnover and burnout are all factors that are often experienced by call centre agents (Banks & Roodt, 2011). However, Van der Colff and Rothman (2009) report that some call centre agents, regardless of the high job demands, do not develop burnout. These agents cope better than others under highly demanding and stressful work conditions. To build on these findings, the present study took a detailed look at factors affecting the well-being of employees working in call centres. Specifically, the question was asked, “Why is there variance in work engagement, job burnout and intention to quit amongst the employees in call centres?” The job demands-resources (JD-R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014) was used as a framework to investigate the well-being of call centre agents employed in the outbound departments of two branches of a Cape Town call centre. The primary objective of this study was to develop and empirically test a structural model, derived from theory, explaining the antecedents of variance in work engagement, job burnout and intention to quit amongst call centre employees. The antecedents comprise transformational leadership (as a job resource), emotional intelligence and psychological capital (as employees’ personal resources), and emotional labour (as job demands) present in a call centre environment. An ex post facto correlational design was used to test the formulated hypotheses in this research study. Quantitative data was collected from 223 call centre agents by means of non-probability convenience sampling. A self-administered hard-copy survey was distributed to the two call centre branches, given that call centre agents agreed to participate in the research study. Measuring instruments consisted of (1) the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-17) questionnaire (Schaufeli et al., 2002), (2) the Maslach Burnout Inventory General Survey (MBI-GS) (Maslach, Schaufeli & Leiter, 2001), (3) the Turnover Intention Scale (TIS) (Ding & Lin, 2006; Lee, 2000), (4) the Emotional Demands and Emotion-rule Dissonance scales (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, & Fischbach, 2013), (5) the adapted Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ 5x short) (Van Aswegen & Engelbrecht, 2009), (6) the Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Gignac, 2010) and (7) the Psychological Capital Questionnaire (Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007). The data was analysed using item analyses and structural equation modelling (SEM). A PLS path analysis was conducted to determine the model fit. From the 21 hypotheses formulated in the study, six were found to be significant. It is noteworthy, however, that 12 of the non-significant paths were related to the moderating effects. Hypotheses 1, 3 and 8 were also found to be not significant. However, hypotheses 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 9 were all found to be statistically significant and therefore supported the JD-R theory (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014), which postulates that job demands are generally the most important predictors of job burnout, whereas job resources and personal resources are generally the most important predictors of work engagement. Also, it was found that call centre agents experiencing a high level of work engagement were less inclined to leave the organisation. The study’s findings shed light on the importance of developing interventions that can foster job and personal resources in the pursuit of optimising work engagement. In addition, the call centre agents can be bolstered in coping with existing job demands and cumulatively this also results in a decrease in the employees’ level of burnout and in their intention to leave the company. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING : Bedryfsielkundige literatuur met betrekking tot inbelsentrums beklemtoon die negatiewe aspekte van die werkomgewing van inbelsentrums en die gevolglike nadelige effek op werkers se welsyn. Inbelsentrums is reeds beskryf as die “steenkoolmyne van die 21ste eeu”, ‘”monteerbande in die kop” en “sataniese meule” (Janse van Rensburg, Boonzaier, & Boonzaier, 2013, p. 2). Hoë vlakke van stres, hoë personeelomset en uitbranding is faktore wat gereeld deur inbelsentrum-agente ervaar word (Banks & Roodt, 2011). Van der Colff en Rothman (2009) rapporteer egter dat ten spyte van hulle hoë werkvereistes, sommige inbelsentrumagente nie uitbranding ervaar nie. Hierdie agente vaar beter as ander onder hoogs veeleisende en stresvolle werkomstandighede. Om verder te bou op die navorsing wat reeds onderneem is, kyk die huidige studie na die faktore wat moontlik die welsyn van werknemers in inbelsentrums affekteer. Met ander woorde, dit soek na die antwoord op die navorsingsinisiërende vraag: “Hoekom is daar verskille in die werksbegeestering, werksuitbranding en intensie om die organisasie te verlaat onder werknemers in inbelsentrums?” Om op hierdie navorsingsinisiërende vraag te kan reageer, is die job demands-resources (JD-R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014) gebruik as raamwerk spesifiek om die welsyn van inbelsentrumagente wat in die uitbel-departemente binne twee takke van ‘n bekende uitbelsentrum, geleë in Kaapstad, te ondersoek. Die hoofdoelwit van hierdie studie was om ’n strukturele model te ontwikkel en te toets wat die antesedente van variansie in werksbegeestering, werksuitbranding en die intensie om die organisaie te verlaat, onder inbelsentrumwerknemers verklaar. Die spesifieke antesedente wat in hierdie studie getoets is, was transformasie-leierskap (as ’n werkshulpbron), emosionele intelligensie en sielkundige kapitaal (psychological capital) (as werknemers se persoonlike hulpbronne), en emosionele arbeid (as werkseise) wat in ‘n inbelsentrum-omgewing teenwoordig is. ʼn Ex post facto korrelasie-ontwerp is gebruik om die geformuleerde hipoteses in hierdie studie te toets. Kwantitatiewe data is by 223 inbelsentrumagente deur middel van nie-waarskynlikheids gerieflikheidsteekproeftrekking ingesamel. ’n Selfgeadministreerde hardekopie-opname is in die twee takke van die inbelsentrum versprei, aangesien hulle ingestem het om aan die studie deel te neem. Die opname het spesifieke latente veranderlikes gemeet wat op die studie van toepassing is deur gebruik te maak van betroubare en geldige meetinstrumente. Hierdie instrumente sluit in (1) die Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-17) vraelys (Schaufeli et al., 2002), (2) die Maslach Burnout Inventory General Survey (MBI-GS) (Maslach, Schaufeli & Leiter, 2001), (3) die Turnover Intention Scale (TIS) (Ding & Lin, 2006; Lee, 2000), (4) die Emotional Demands en Emotion-rule Dissonance skale (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, & Fischbach, 2013), (5) die aangepaste Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ 5x kort) (Van Aswegen & Engelbrecht, 2009), (6) die Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Gignac, 2010) en (7) die Psychological Capital Questionnaire (Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007). Die versamelde data is deur middel van item-analise en strukturele vergelykingsmodellering geanaliseer. ’n PLS pad-ontleding is onderneem om modelpassing te bepaal. Vanuit die 21 hipoteses wat vir hierdie studie geformuleer is, is ses bevind om betekenisvol te wees. Dit is egter merkwaardig dat 12 van die nie-betekenisvolle bane verband gehou het met modererende effekte. Hipoteses 1, 3 en 8 is ook bevind om nie-betekenisvol te wees. Hierdie nie-betekenisvolle bane kan op grond van verskeie redes ontstaan. Hipoteses 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 en 9 is egter almal bevind om statisties betekenisvol te wees en ondersteun dus die JD-R teorie (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014). Hierdie teorie hou voor dat werksvereistes oor die algemeen die belangrikste voorspellers van werksuitbranding is, terwyl werkshulpbronne en persoonlike hulpbronne oor die algemeen die vernaamste voorspellers van werksbegeestering is. Dit is ook bevind dat inbelsentrumagente wat ’n hoë vlak van werksbegeestering ervaar, minder geneig is om die organisasie te verlaat. Die studie se bevindings werp lig op die belangrikheid daarvan om ingrypings te ontwikkel wat werks- en persoonlike hulpbronne kan kweek in die nastrewing van die optimering van begeestering en om inbelsentrumagente te help om die bestaande werkseise te hanteer. Gevolglik sal hierdie uitkoms lei tot ’n vermindering in die werknemers se vlakke van uitbranding en in hulle intensies om die organisasie te verlaat.