Made available in DSpace on 2016-01-26T12:51:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 gloriaelisa_tese.pdf: 873601 bytes, checksum: 4169d3e3662f4f5b0cb50f642bec7715 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005-11-28 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Cyclosporine A (CsA) is a immunosuppressant drug, whose most serious toxic effect is chronic nephrotoxicity, characterized by decreased glomerular filtration rate and the development of irreversible renal fibrosis. It may go through the placenta to the developing fetus. Currently, a great number of women with childbearing potential is treated by CsA, increasing the chances of pregnancy under the effect of this drug. Our objectives were to assess CsA effects on the renal structure and function during pregnancy. The low-salt-diet (0.06%) model was used in pregnant (P/CsA) and virgin (V/CsA) Munich-Wistar female rats receiving CsA; in virgin (V/VH) and pregnant (P/VH) rats with vehicle at a dosage of 15 mg/kg/day of CsA subcutaneously or vehicle. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR, ml/min/100g) , renal blood flow (RBF, Doppler ultrasound, ml/min), renal vascular resistance (RVR, mmHg/ml/min), blood pressure (BP, intracarotid probe, mmHg), blood levels of CsA (BCsA, radioimmunoassay, ng/ml), urinary volume (UV, ml/min), plasma and urinary creatinine (mg/dl), urine sodium excretion (UNa, mEq/l), sodium excretion fraction (FeNa,%) urinary osmolality (UOsm, m/Osm/K), osmolar clearance (COsm, ml/min), urinary nitric-oxide (NO, griess, umol/mgCr), immunohistochemistry for angiotensin II-positive renal cells and renal histology were measured in the middle and at the end of the gestational period (21 days). Results are presented as mean ± standard error of mean and analyzed by ANOVA and Student-Neuman-Keuls test. After 10 days of treatment, the pregnancy caused significant increases of 27% in the GFR (GC; 1.19 ± 0.04 vs 0.94 ± 0.05 in V/C, p<0.05) and of 36% in RBF (G/C; 4.9 ± 0.2 vs 3.6 ± 0.1 in V/C, p< 0.001) and significant decreases of 13% in MBP (GC; 112 ± 4 vs 129 ± 5 in V/C, p<0.05) and of 29% in RVR ( GC; 24 ± 1 vs 34 ± 2 in VC, p<0.05) of vehicle treated animals. In contrast, in CsA-treated animals, there was no significant GFR increase in pregnancy (20%, G/CsA; 0.95 ± 0.07 vs 0.79 ± 0.07 in V/CsA, p>0.05) nor was there a significant MPB decrease (7%, G/CsA; 110 ± 3 vs 118 ± 4 in V/CsA, p>0.05). The significant RBF increase (38%, G/CsA; 3.3 ± 0.2 vs 2.4 ± 0.1 in V/CsA p<0,01) and significant RVR decrease ( 24%, G/CsA 38 ± 3 vs 50 ± 3 in V/CsA, p<0.05) were maintained in this group. Pregnancy caused a significant decrease of CsA serum levels (G/CsA; 544±58 vs 805±71 in V/CsA, p<0.01). CsA treated animals showed a trend to higher urinary nitric oxide levels, however, the difference was not statistically significant. There was no difference in urinary nitric oxide between virgin and pregnant rats. Pregnancy increased the number of angiotensin II-positive cells in the renal interstitium (3.9 ± 0.6 in G/CsA vs 2.5 ± 0.4 in V/CsA and 4 ± 1.4 in G/C vs 1.9 ± 0.86 in V/C), however these differences did not reach statistical significance. The number of angiotensin II-positive cells in the afferent arteriole was greater in pregnant rats when compared to virgin rats (G/C; 1.3 ± 0.3 vs 0.21 ± 0.2 in V/C) and greater in CsA-treated virgin rats when compared to vehicle-treated rats (V/CsA; 1 ± 0.3 vs 0.21 ± 0.2 in V/C), however these differences were not statistically significant. After 20 days, V and P rats had similar (NS) GFR and RBF decreases and CsA vs Control for GFR (p<0.001), for RBF (p<0.01), and a similar RVR increase (NS). MBP values showed similar decreases in V vs P rats (NS) and a decrease in Csa vs C animals (p<0.05). SCsA was lower in P vs V rats (p<0.001). AII expression in the interstice increased for V/CsA vs V/C rats (p<0.001) and for G/CsA vs P/C rats (p<0.05). The same was observed in the afferent arteriole, for V/CsA vs v/C (p<0.01); however it was not statistically significant for pregnant rats. Only the V/CsA group had an IF score of 0.2 ± 0.1 after 20 days. In the middle of normal pregnancy, CsA altered the renal hemodynamics, impairing both the increase of GFR and the decrease of BP, although the blood levels of the drug were lower in pregnant rats than in virgin rats. The NO urinary system does not seem to be connected to this phenomenon. AII expression in the interstice and in the afferent arteriole was greater for CsA treated-pregnant animals vs controls. Pregnancy did not impair CsA-induced interstitial fibrosis. / A ciclosporina A (CsA) é uma droga imunossupressora cujo efeito tóxico mais grave é a nefrotoxicidade, caracterizada pela queda da filtração glomerular e pelo desenvolvimento de fibrose intersticial renal irreversível. A CsA pode passar através da placenta para o feto em desenvolvimento. Atualmente, um grande número de mulheres em idade fértil são tratadas com CsA, aumentando a chance de gestação sob efeito desta droga. Os objetivos deste estudo foram avaliar os efeitos da CsA sobre a função e estrutura renal durante a gravidez. Utilizou-se o modelo da manobra de restrição de sal na dieta (0,06%) em ratas Munich-Wistar, virgens que receberam CsA (V/CsA), grávidas com CsA (G/CsA), virgens com veículo (V/C) e grávidas com veículo (GIC), na dose de 15 mg/Kg/dia de CsA subcutâneo ou veículo. Avaliou-se na metade e no final do período gestacional a filtração glomerular (FGR, depuração de inulina, ml/min/100g), o fluxo sanguíneo renal (FSR, ultra-som Doppler, ml/min), a resistência vascular renal (RVR, mmHg/ml/min), a pressão arterial média (PAM, cateter intracarotídeo, mmHg), os níveis sanguíneos de CsA (SCsA, radioimunoensaio, ng/ml), o volume urinário (VU, l/min), a creatinina plasmática e urinária (mg/dl), a excreção urinária de sódio (UNa, mEqIl), a fração de excreção de sódio (FeNa,%), a osmolalidade urinária (Uosm, m/Osm/K), a depuração osmolar (Cosm, ml/min), o óxido nítrico urinário (NO, griess, pmol/mgCr), a imunohistoquímica para células renais positivas para angiotensina II (células/campo) e a histologia renal. Os resultados são apresentados como média erro padrão e comparados por ANOVA e StudentNeuman-Keuls. Após 10 dias de tratamento a gravidez provocou aumentos significantes de 27% na FGR (GC; 1,19 0,04 vs 0,94 0,05 em V/C, p<0,05) e de 36% no FSR (G/C 49 + 0,2 vs 36 + 0,1 em V/C, p< 0,001) e quedas significantes de 13% na PAM (GC; 112 4 vs 129 5 em V/C, p<0,05) e de 29% na RVR (GC; 24 1 vs 34 2 em VC, p<0,05) Nota de Resumo dos animais tratados com veículo. Em contraste, nos animais tratados com CsA, na gravidez não houve aumento significante da FOR (20%, G/CsA; 0,95 + 0,07 vs 0,79 + 0,07 em V/CsA, p>0,05) ou queda significante da PAM (7%, G/CsA; 110 3 vs 118 4 em V/CsA, p>0,05). Neste grupo manteve-se a elevação significante do FSR (38%, G/CsA; 3,3 0,2 vs 2 4 0,1 em V/CsA p<0,01) e a diminuição significante da RVR (24%, C/CsA 38 3 vs 50 3 em V/CsA, p<0,05). A gravidez provocou diminuição significante dos níveis séricos de CsA (G/CsA; 544 58 vs 805 71 em V/CsA, p<0,0 1). Os animais tratados com CsA apresentaram tendência a níveis mais elevados de óxido nítrico urinário, porém a diferença não foi estatisticamente significante. Não houve diferença de óxido nítrico urinário entre ratas virgens e grávidas. A gravidez causou aumento do número de células positivas para angiotensina II no interstício renal (3,90,6 em G/CsA vs 2,5 0,4 em V/CsA e 4 1,4 em C/C vs 1,9 0,86 em V/C), porém estas diferenças não alcançaram signíficância estatística. O número de células positivas para angiotensina li na arteríola aferente foi maior nas ratas grávidas quando comparadas às virgens (G/C; 1,3 0,3 vs O 21 + O 2 em V/C) e maior nas ratas virgens tratadas com CsA quando comparadas às tratadas com veículo (V/CsA 1 + 0,3 vs 021 + 02 em V/C), porém, estas diferenças não foram estatisticamente significantes. Após 20 dias, V e O apresentaram queda similares (NS) na FGR e FSR, sendo CsA vs Controle para FGR (p<0.001), para FSR (p<0.01), e aumentando similar na RVR (NS). Os valores da PAM apresentaram quedas similares, em V vs G (NS) e diminuição nos animais com CsA vs C (p<0,05). A SCsA foi menor em G vs V (p<0,01). A expressão de AII no interstício aumentou, para V/CsA vs V/C (p<0,001) e para G/CsA vs G/C (p<0,05). O mesmo aconteceu na arteríola aferente, para V/CsA vs V/C (p<0,01); todavia não foi estatisticamente significante para as ratas prenhes. Nota de Resumo Apenas o grupo V/CsA após 20 dias apresentou escore de 0,2 + 0,1 de IRF. A CsA alterou desfavoravelmente a hemodinâmica renal na metade da gravidez normal, prejudicando o aumento da FGR e prejudicando queda da PA na prenhez normal, apesar de as ratas prenhes apresentarem níveis sangüíneos da droga menores em relação às virgens. O NO não parece estar envolvido nesse fenômeno. A expressão da AII no interstício e na arteríola aferente foi maior para os animais com CsA e prenhes vs controles. A gravidez não prejudicou a fibrose intersticial causada pela CsA.

Introdução: O Diabetes mellitus tipo 1 (DM1) cursa com produção ausente ou irrisória de insulina e é a forma responsável pelos casos mais graves de distúrbios glicêmicos. O DM1 exerce forte influência sobre o crescimento fetal. Enquanto a hiperglicemia estimula o crescimento fetal devido à hiperinsulinemia, nas pacientes com vasculopatias a placentação inadequada pode levar o feto à restrição. Objetivos: identificar alterações de crescimento fetal e avaliá-las quanto a sua associação com o controle glicêmico materno e de marcadores laboratoriais de função renal. Métodos: foram avaliadas, de forma prospectiva em coorte observacional, 60 gestantes com DM1 que iniciaram o pré-natal no primeiro trimestre. A associação entre a classificação de peso ao nascimento com as seguintes variáveis foi analisada: média glicêmica, frequência de hipo e hiperglicemia, frequência de hipo e hiperglicemia grave, hemoglobina glicada, frutosamina, ácido úrico, creatinina e proteinúria de 24 horas. A predição do crescimento fetal também foi estudada. Resultados: Desvios do crescimento fetal em pacientes com DM1 ocorreram em 41% dos casos (n=25). Observou-se que 10% das gestações resultaram em PIG (n=6) e 31%, em GIG (n=19). Níveis aumentados de média glicêmica (p =0,006), baixa frequência de hipoglicemias (p = 0,027) e alta frequência de hiperglicemias (p = 0,014) se associaram a GIG no terceiro trimestre. Em todos os trimestres, valores séricos mais elevados de ácido úrico, creatinina e proteinúria de 24hs, se associaram de maneira significativa, ao grupo PIG. Foi construído um modelo, com taxa de acerto de 80.3%, para a predição de crescimento fetal com os valores de terceiro trimestre da média glicêmica e da creatinina. Conclusões: Foram identificadas variáveis relacionadas ao controle glicêmico materno e à marcadores laboratoriais de função renal que se associaram a alterações no crescimento fetal. Usando algumas dessas variáveis foi possível construir um modelo para predição do crescimento fetal com boa acurácia / Introduction. Diabetes mellitus type 1 (DM1) is described as absent or negligible production of insulin and it is responsible for the most severe cases of glycemic disorders. DM1 has a strong influence on fetal growth. In pregnant women the hyperglycemia stimulates fetal growth, and the vasculopathy influences the placentation process, which may lead to growth restriction. Objective. To identify fetal growth disorders and their association with maternal glycemic control and laboratory markers of renal function. Methods. Sixty pregnant women with DM1 were prospectively followed from the first trimester in an observational cohort. The association between birthweight classification with the following parameter were investigated: glycemic mean, frequency of hypo and hyperglycemia, frequency of severe hyper and hypoglycemia, glycated hemoglobin, fructosamine, uric acid, creatinine and proteinuria of 24 hours. The prediction of fetal growth was also investigated. Results. Abnormal fetal growth was observed in 41% (n= 25). Large for gestational age (LGA) was observed in 31.7% (n=19) and small for gestational age (SGA) in 10% (n= 6). High values of glycemic mean (p = 0.006), low frequency of hypoglycemia (p = 0.027) and high frequency of hyperglycemia (p = 0.014) were significantly associated with LGA fetal growth in the third trimester. In all trimesters, the SGA fetal growth was significantly associated with higher serum values of uric acid, creatinine and proteinuria of 24 hours. The prediction model for fetal growth, using values of glycemic mean and creatinine, was significant in the third trimester with an accuracy of 80.3%. Conclusions. The maternal glycemic control and the laboratory markers of renal function associated with the fetal growth disorders in pregnancies with DM1 were identified. Using these parameters it was possible to predict with a good accuracy the fetal growth in DM1

Está bem documentada a importância da disfunção autonômica na evolução das complicações do Diabetes. Adicionalmente, novas e consistentes evidências indicam que o controle reflexo da circulação comandado pelos baroreceptores poderia ser um marcador prognóstico precoce no Diabete melito, clínico e experimental. No presente projeto, testamos a hipótese de que a disfunção barorreflexa interfere no desenvolvimento da nefropatia e cardiomiopatia diabética por alterar a modulação autonômica comandada pelos barorreceptores arteriais sobre vasos e coração. Foram utilizados ratos Wistar machos (230 a 260g) divididos em 4 grupos experimentais: controle (GC, n=9), diabético (GD, n=11), desnervado (GCD, n=9) e desnervado diabético (GDD, n=8). Após 7 dias de desnervação sinoaórtica, foi realizada a indução do diabetes (DM) por estreptozotocina (STZ). Foram realizadas avaliações metabólicas, teste de tolerância a glicose e avaliações ecocardiográficas durante a terceira semana do protocolo. A partir dos 28 dias de protocolo foram realizados registros diretos da pressão arterial (PA) e avaliações da sensibilidade barorreflexas, da modulação autonômica cardiovascular (variabilidade da freqüência cardíaca e da PA sistólica), análise dos fluxos sanguíneos regionais e avaliações renais ex vivo. Os grupos diabéticos (GD e GDD) apresentaram aumento da glicemia e redução do peso corporal, da PA e da freqüência cardíaca quando comparados com os grupos não diabéticos (GC e GCD). Os grupos diabéticos apresentaram uma maior área de resposta sob a curva de resposta glicêmica quando comparados aos grupos controle, indicando assim uma intolerância maior a glicose. Nos parâmetros morfométricos, o septo interventricular (SIVDIA) mostrou-se menor nos grupos diabéticos quando comparados ao GC. A parede posterior do ventrículo esquerdo (PPDIA) mostrou-se diminuída somente no grupo diabético. Com relação ao tamanho da cavidade do ventrículo esquerdo na diástole (VEDIA), observou-se uma tendência a aumento em todos os grupos quando comparados ao controle. A massa do ventrículo esquerdo (MVE) foi menor no grupo diabético em relação ao controle e maior nos grupos submetidos à DSA quando comparados ao GC. A função sistólica foi avaliada pela fração de ejeção (FE), na qual não foi observada diferença entre os grupos estudados. A função diastólica foi avaliada pelo tempo de relaxamento isovolumétrico (TRIV) que foi maior no grupo diabético quando comparado ao controle. Já o grupo desnervado apresentou valores próximos ao do GC. Entretanto, o grupo desnervado diabético apresentou valores menores de TRIV quando comparado aos animais apenas diabéticos. Disfunção autonômica, avaliada pela sensibilidade barorreflexa, pela variabilidade da FC (VFC) e da PA sistólica (VPAS), foram observadas nos grupos GD, GCD e GDD em relação ao grupo C. Os fluxos sanguíneos analisados nesse protocolo (coronariano, pulmonar, renal e muscular) apresentaram-se reduzidos em todos os grupos experimentais quando comparados ao GC. O grupo submetido à SAD mostrou uma redução mais acentuada em todos os fluxos sanguíneos estudados. A resistência vascular periférica total encontra-se aumentada em todos os grupos analisados com um aumento maior nos grupos diabéticos. O débito cardíaco mostrou-se reduzido em todos os grupos estudados, em especial no grupo desnervado diabético, quando comparados com o GC. Com relação ao índice cardíaco, também observamos uma redução em todos os grupos, com uma redução maior nos grupos diabéticos sendo que a desnervação não foi capaz de atenuar essa redução no grupo desnervado diabético. A avaliação renal mostrou um aumento da pressão de perfusão do GD, acompanhado por um aumento significativo na resistência vascular renal, no fluxo urinário, no ritmo de filtração glomerular. Dessa forma, os resultados obtidos no presente trabalho fornecem evidencias de que o papel homeostático do baroreflexo é essencial no curso das alterações cardíacas e renais tanto em animais normoglicêmicos como nos hiperglicêmicos, por sua ação não só no controle das variações momento a momento (labilidade) como também interferindo em alterações sustentadas da PA, como observado nesse trabalho. Esses resultados poderão dar suporte a estudos populacionais que associam maior sensibilidade do baroreflexo com melhor prognóstico e sobrevida após evento cardiovascular em indivíduos diabéticos / It is well documented the importance of autonomic dysfunction in microvascular complications of diabetes. Additionally, new and consistent evidence indicates that the reflex control of movement is controlled by the baroreceptors could be an early prognostic marker in diabetes mellitus, clinical and experimental. In this project, we tested the hypothesis that baroreflex dysfunction interferes with the development of nephropathy and diabetic cardiomyopathy by altering the autonomic modulation controlled by the arterial baroreceptors on heart and blood vessels. We used male Wistar rats (230 to 260g) were divided into four groups: control group (n = 9), diabetic (GD, n = 11), denervated (GCD, n = 9) and diabetic denervated (GDD, n = 8). After 7 days of sinoaortic denervation was performed we induced diabetes (DM) by streptozotocin (STZ). We evaluated metabolic, glucose tolerance test and echocardiographic evaluations during the third week of the protocol. After 28 days of protocol records were taken direct blood pressure (BP) and baroreflex sensitivity assessments of cardiovascular autonomic (heart rate variability and systolic BP), regional blood flow analysis and evaluations kidney ex vivo. Diabetic groups (GD and GDD) had higher blood glucose and reduced body weight, blood pressure and heart rate when compared with non-diabetic groups (GC and GCD). Diabetic groups showed a larger response area under the glycemic response curve when compared to control groups, thus indicating an increased glucose intolerance. The morphometric parameters, interventricular septum (IVSD) was lower in both diabetic groups compared to CG. The back wall of the left ventricle (PPDIA) was reduced only in diabetic mice. Regarding the size of the cavity of the left ventricle during diastole (Vedia), there was a tendency to increase in all groups compared to control. The left ventricular mass (LVM) was lower in the diabetic group compared to control, and higher in the groups submitted to DSA when compared to CG. Systolic function was evaluated by ejection fraction (EF), in which there was no difference between groups. Diastolic function was evaluated by isovolumic relaxation time (IVRT) was greater in the diabetic group compared to control. The denervated group showed similar to the CG. However, the denervated diabetic group showed lower values of IVRT as compared to diabetic animals only. Autonomic dysfunction, as assessed by baroreflex sensitivity by HR variability (HRV) and systolic (VPAS) were observed in groups GD, GCD and GDD than in group C. The blood flows analyzed in this protocol (coronary, pulmonary, kidney and muscle) were reduced in all experimental groups compared to CG. The group submitted to SAD showed a marked reduction in all blood flows studied. The total peripheral vascular resistance is increased in all groups with a greater increase in the diabetic group. Cardiac output was reduced in all groups, especially in denervated diabetic group compared with the GC. With respect to cardiac index, we also observed a reduction in all groups, with a greater reduction in the diabetic group and that denervation was not able to mitigate this reduction in denervated diabetic group. The evaluation showed an increase in renal perfusion pressure of the GD, accompanied by a significant increase in renal vascular resistance, urinary flow, the glomerular filtration rate. Thus, the results obtained in this study provide evidence that the homeostatic role of the baroreflex is essential in the course of changes in both heart and kidney as in hyperglycemic animals normoglycemic by acting not only in control of changes moment to moment (lability) as well as interfering with sustained changes in BP, as observed in this study. These results could support population studies linking higher sensitivity of the baroreflex with a better prognosis and survival after a cardiovascular event in diabetic subjects

Está bem documentada a importância da disfunção autonômica na evolução das complicações do Diabetes. Adicionalmente, novas e consistentes evidências indicam que o controle reflexo da circulação comandado pelos baroreceptores poderia ser um marcador prognóstico precoce no Diabete melito, clínico e experimental. No presente projeto, testamos a hipótese de que a disfunção barorreflexa interfere no desenvolvimento da nefropatia e cardiomiopatia diabética por alterar a modulação autonômica comandada pelos barorreceptores arteriais sobre vasos e coração. Foram utilizados ratos Wistar machos (230 a 260g) divididos em 4 grupos experimentais: controle (GC, n=9), diabético (GD, n=11), desnervado (GCD, n=9) e desnervado diabético (GDD, n=8). Após 7 dias de desnervação sinoaórtica, foi realizada a indução do diabetes (DM) por estreptozotocina (STZ). Foram realizadas avaliações metabólicas, teste de tolerância a glicose e avaliações ecocardiográficas durante a terceira semana do protocolo. A partir dos 28 dias de protocolo foram realizados registros diretos da pressão arterial (PA) e avaliações da sensibilidade barorreflexas, da modulação autonômica cardiovascular (variabilidade da freqüência cardíaca e da PA sistólica), análise dos fluxos sanguíneos regionais e avaliações renais ex vivo. Os grupos diabéticos (GD e GDD) apresentaram aumento da glicemia e redução do peso corporal, da PA e da freqüência cardíaca quando comparados com os grupos não diabéticos (GC e GCD). Os grupos diabéticos apresentaram uma maior área de resposta sob a curva de resposta glicêmica quando comparados aos grupos controle, indicando assim uma intolerância maior a glicose. Nos parâmetros morfométricos, o septo interventricular (SIVDIA) mostrou-se menor nos grupos diabéticos quando comparados ao GC. A parede posterior do ventrículo esquerdo (PPDIA) mostrou-se diminuída somente no grupo diabético. Com relação ao tamanho da cavidade do ventrículo esquerdo na diástole (VEDIA), observou-se uma tendência a aumento em todos os grupos quando comparados ao controle. A massa do ventrículo esquerdo (MVE) foi menor no grupo diabético em relação ao controle e maior nos grupos submetidos à DSA quando comparados ao GC. A função sistólica foi avaliada pela fração de ejeção (FE), na qual não foi observada diferença entre os grupos estudados. A função diastólica foi avaliada pelo tempo de relaxamento isovolumétrico (TRIV) que foi maior no grupo diabético quando comparado ao controle. Já o grupo desnervado apresentou valores próximos ao do GC. Entretanto, o grupo desnervado diabético apresentou valores menores de TRIV quando comparado aos animais apenas diabéticos. Disfunção autonômica, avaliada pela sensibilidade barorreflexa, pela variabilidade da FC (VFC) e da PA sistólica (VPAS), foram observadas nos grupos GD, GCD e GDD em relação ao grupo C. Os fluxos sanguíneos analisados nesse protocolo (coronariano, pulmonar, renal e muscular) apresentaram-se reduzidos em todos os grupos experimentais quando comparados ao GC. O grupo submetido à SAD mostrou uma redução mais acentuada em todos os fluxos sanguíneos estudados. A resistência vascular periférica total encontra-se aumentada em todos os grupos analisados com um aumento maior nos grupos diabéticos. O débito cardíaco mostrou-se reduzido em todos os grupos estudados, em especial no grupo desnervado diabético, quando comparados com o GC. Com relação ao índice cardíaco, também observamos uma redução em todos os grupos, com uma redução maior nos grupos diabéticos sendo que a desnervação não foi capaz de atenuar essa redução no grupo desnervado diabético. A avaliação renal mostrou um aumento da pressão de perfusão do GD, acompanhado por um aumento significativo na resistência vascular renal, no fluxo urinário, no ritmo de filtração glomerular. Dessa forma, os resultados obtidos no presente trabalho fornecem evidencias de que o papel homeostático do baroreflexo é essencial no curso das alterações cardíacas e renais tanto em animais normoglicêmicos como nos hiperglicêmicos, por sua ação não só no controle das variações momento a momento (labilidade) como também interferindo em alterações sustentadas da PA, como observado nesse trabalho. Esses resultados poderão dar suporte a estudos populacionais que associam maior sensibilidade do baroreflexo com melhor prognóstico e sobrevida após evento cardiovascular em indivíduos diabéticos / It is well documented the importance of autonomic dysfunction in microvascular complications of diabetes. Additionally, new and consistent evidence indicates that the reflex control of movement is controlled by the baroreceptors could be an early prognostic marker in diabetes mellitus, clinical and experimental. In this project, we tested the hypothesis that baroreflex dysfunction interferes with the development of nephropathy and diabetic cardiomyopathy by altering the autonomic modulation controlled by the arterial baroreceptors on heart and blood vessels. We used male Wistar rats (230 to 260g) were divided into four groups: control group (n = 9), diabetic (GD, n = 11), denervated (GCD, n = 9) and diabetic denervated (GDD, n = 8). After 7 days of sinoaortic denervation was performed we induced diabetes (DM) by streptozotocin (STZ). We evaluated metabolic, glucose tolerance test and echocardiographic evaluations during the third week of the protocol. After 28 days of protocol records were taken direct blood pressure (BP) and baroreflex sensitivity assessments of cardiovascular autonomic (heart rate variability and systolic BP), regional blood flow analysis and evaluations kidney ex vivo. Diabetic groups (GD and GDD) had higher blood glucose and reduced body weight, blood pressure and heart rate when compared with non-diabetic groups (GC and GCD). Diabetic groups showed a larger response area under the glycemic response curve when compared to control groups, thus indicating an increased glucose intolerance. The morphometric parameters, interventricular septum (IVSD) was lower in both diabetic groups compared to CG. The back wall of the left ventricle (PPDIA) was reduced only in diabetic mice. Regarding the size of the cavity of the left ventricle during diastole (Vedia), there was a tendency to increase in all groups compared to control. The left ventricular mass (LVM) was lower in the diabetic group compared to control, and higher in the groups submitted to DSA when compared to CG. Systolic function was evaluated by ejection fraction (EF), in which there was no difference between groups. Diastolic function was evaluated by isovolumic relaxation time (IVRT) was greater in the diabetic group compared to control. The denervated group showed similar to the CG. However, the denervated diabetic group showed lower values of IVRT as compared to diabetic animals only. Autonomic dysfunction, as assessed by baroreflex sensitivity by HR variability (HRV) and systolic (VPAS) were observed in groups GD, GCD and GDD than in group C. The blood flows analyzed in this protocol (coronary, pulmonary, kidney and muscle) were reduced in all experimental groups compared to CG. The group submitted to SAD showed a marked reduction in all blood flows studied. The total peripheral vascular resistance is increased in all groups with a greater increase in the diabetic group. Cardiac output was reduced in all groups, especially in denervated diabetic group compared with the GC. With respect to cardiac index, we also observed a reduction in all groups, with a greater reduction in the diabetic group and that denervation was not able to mitigate this reduction in denervated diabetic group. The evaluation showed an increase in renal perfusion pressure of the GD, accompanied by a significant increase in renal vascular resistance, urinary flow, the glomerular filtration rate. Thus, the results obtained in this study provide evidence that the homeostatic role of the baroreflex is essential in the course of changes in both heart and kidney as in hyperglycemic animals normoglycemic by acting not only in control of changes moment to moment (lability) as well as interfering with sustained changes in BP, as observed in this study. These results could support population studies linking higher sensitivity of the baroreflex with a better prognosis and survival after a cardiovascular event in diabetic subjects

Les maladies rénales chroniques (MRC) et l'insuffisance rénale aiguë (IRA) sont des problèmes essentiels de santé publique en raison de l'augmentation continue de leur fréquence et du manque de solutions thérapeutiques contre ces maladies. L'acide lysophosphatidique (LPA) est un lysophospholipide bioactif qui induit un large éventail de réponses cellulaires par le biais de récepteurs membranaires spécifiques (LPA1 à LPA6) couplés aux protéines G. Dans ce travail, nous nous sommes intéressés aux effets biologiques et au métabolisme du LPA dans les MRC et l'IRA. Des travaux antérieurs de l'équipe avaient montré que le LPA contribuait, via le récepteur LPA1, au développement de la fibrose tubulointerstitio (TIF) dans un modèle de MRC chez la souris : l'obstruction urétérale. Dans la première partie de la thèse nous avons étudié l'implication du LPA dans un modèle plus avancé de MRC: la néphrectomie subtotale (SNX) chez la souris. Nos travaux ont montré que 5 mois après chirurgie les souris (SNX) développaient une albuminurie massive associée à une TIF sévère et à une hypertrophie glomérulaire. Chez ces souris la concentration en LPA mesurée par chromatographie liquide en spectrométrie de masse en tandem était augmentée dans l'urine et étroitement corrélée à l'albuminurie et à la TIF. En parallèle, nous avons observé une diminution de l'expression rénale des Lipid-Phosphate Phosphatases (LPP 1, 2 et 3) responsables de l'inactivation du LPA. Nous avons également observé que l'expression rénale des récepteurs LPA1, 2, 3 et 4 était diminuée chez les souris Snx. Nous avons conclu que les effets délétères éventuels du LPA dans le développement de la MRC chez les souris SNX était vraisemblablement lié à une augmentation de sa production rénale plutôt qu'à une sensibilité accrue du rein au LPA. Des travaux antérieurs avaient montré que l'injection de LPA protégeait contre l'apparition des lésions rénales induites par ischémie/reperfusion chez la souris. Une autre étude avait montré que le LPA permettait d'atténuer l'inflammation systémique et les dommages aux organes induits par un choc septique. Dans la deuxième partie de la thèse, nous avons étudié l'influence du LPA sur l'IRA induite par une endotoxémie au LPS (lipopolysaccharide) chez la souris. Nous avons observé que l'injection de LPA permettait d'atténuer l'élévation d'urée et de créatinine plasmatiques, ainsi que l'augmentation d'expression rénale de cytokines inflammatoires (IL-6, TNFa, MCP-1) induites par le LPS. Le LPA a également empêché la baisse d'expression rénale du facteur PGC1a ainsi que les altérations ultra-structurales des mitochondries rénales induites par le LPS. In vitro, le LPA atténue l'augmentation d'expression des cytokines pro-inflammatoires (TNFa et MCP-1) induite par le LPS dans les macrophages RAW264. Enfin, nos travaux ont montré que l'endotoxémie au LPS chez la souris entrainait une réduction de la concentration urinaire de LPA associée à une réduction des enzymes anaboliques LPA (autotaxine et acylglycérol kinase) et une élévation de l'expression de de LPP2, dans le cortex rénal. Nous en avons conclu que l'IRA associée à l'endotoxémie pourrait être liée, au moins en partie, à une réduction de la production rénale de LPA et, par voix de conséquence, de ses effets anti-inflammatoires protecteurs de la fonction rénale. En conclusion, notre travail montre que les variations de production rénale de LPA pourraient jouer un rôle important dans le développement des maladies rénales. L'augmentation du LPA dans les MRC favoriserait ses effets délétères (fibrose, inflammation). Sa réduction dans l'IRA réduirait ses effets anti-inflammatoires. Cibler le catabolisme LPA pourrait donc être une approche intéressante dans le traitement des maladies rénales. / Both chronic kidney diseases (CKD) with consecutive development of end stage renal disease (ESRD) and acute kidney injury (AKI) represent worrying problems for healthcare system due to its increased frequency and the lack of efficient treatments. Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a bioactive lysophospholipid that elicits a wide range of cell responses (proliferation, migration, transformation, contraction etc.) through the activation of specific G protein-coupled receptors (LPA1 to LPA6). In this work we were interested in involvement of the LPA and changes in its metabolism in CKD and AKI. Previous works showed that LPA exerts pro-fibrotic activity and contributes to development of tubulointerstitioal fibrosis (TIF) after ureteral obstruction through activation of LPA1 receptors. In the first part of the thesis we were interested whether LPA signalization is involved in more advanced model of the disease. We found that 5 months after subtotal nephrectomy (SNX) mice develop massive albuminuria, TIF and glomerular hypertrophy compared to control animals. LPA concentration measured by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was increased in urine but not in plasma of animals. That increase in LPA significantly correlated with albuminuria and TIF. In addition we found a decreased renal expression of lipid phosphate phosphatases (LPP1, 2 and 3) that are responsible for the degradation of LPA by dephosphorylation. Moreover, the expression of LPA1-LPA4 receptors is down-regulated, whereas LPA5 and LPA6 are unchanged. We concluded here that the possible deleterious effect of LPA in the development of CKD in SNX mice was likely related to its increased production rather than an increased sensitivity of the kidney to LPA. Since LPA was reported previously to protect kidney damage in the course of ischemia/reperfusion injury, and that it was able to mitigate the systemic inflammation and organ damage in sepsis, we were interested in second part of the thesis to determine whether exogenous and/or endogenous LPA might protect against sepsis-associated AKI. C57BL/6 mice were treated with exogenous LPA 18:1 1 hour before being injected with the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and AKI was analyzed after 24h. LPA pre-treatment significantly mitigated the LPS-induced elevation of plasma urea and creatinine, lessened the up-regulation of inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNFa, MCP-1) and completely prevented the down-regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC1a) in kidney. LPA also prevented LPS-mediated alterations of renal mitochondria ultrastructure. In vitro, pre-treatment with LPA 18:1 (10 µM) significantly attenuated LPS-induced up-regulation of the pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNFa and MCP-1) in RAW264 macrophages. In addition we found that LPS led to the reduction of urinary LPA concentration that was associated with a reduction in LPA anabolic enzymes (autotaxin and acylglycerol kinase), and an elevation in LPA catabolic enzyme (lipid phosphate phosphatase 2) expression in kidney cortex. We concluded hereby that exogenous LPA exerts protection against endotoxemia-induced kidney injury. Moreover, the observation that LPS reduces the renal production of LPA suggests that sepsis-associated AKI could be mediated, at least in part, by alleviation of the protective action of endogenous LPA. In general our work shows that LPA local metabolism is altered in both forms of kidney diseases. In course of sepsis-induced AKI LPS leads to increased local catabolism of LPA leading to low availability of the phospholipid and alleviating its protective effect whereas in advanced CKD the local catabolism of the phospholipid is decreased with subsequent increase of urine LPA that favors development of the disease. Targeting LPA catabolism can be an interesting approach in treatment of kidney diseases.

Células tronco mesenquimais (CTm) apresentam potencial para tratamento da doença renal pela possibilidade de promover regeneração tecidual e recuperação funcional, possivelmente por seus efeitos parácrinos. Na última década, o líquido amniótico foi descrito como uma fonte promissora de extração e isolamento de CTm. Alguns estudos mostraram o efeito renoprotetor das CTm derivadas do líquido amniótico (CTmLA) na doença renal aguda e crônica, quando inoculadas precocemente. Entretanto, ainda não foi estudado o efeito da administração de CTmLA em modelo experimental de doença renal crônica (DRC) com a lesão já estabelecida, situação esta que reproduz melhor a apresentação clínica da doença nos pacientes. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi analisar o efeito da inoculação de CTmLA na região subcapsular renal no modelo de DRC já estabelecido. As CTmLA foram obtidas de pacientes no segundo trimestre de gestação e isoladas através da sua capacidade de aderência ao plástico. A caracterização das CTm foi feita por citometria de fluxo e pela diferenciação celular in vitro. O modelo de DRC utilizado foi o de nefrectomia 5/6 (Nx) que, pela perda de massa renal, evolui com hipertensão arterial, proteinúria, glomeruloesclerose, fibrose intersticial e perda progressiva da função renal. Quinze dias após a indução do modelo, estas alterações já são marcantes e agravam-se com 30 dias. Foram realizados 2 protocolos experimentais: no protocolo I, os animais Nx com DRC estabelecida receberam dose única de CTmLA (5x105) na região subcapsular renal e foram acompanhados por 30 e 60 dias de experimento. No protocolo II, os animais Nx com DRC estabelecida receberam duas doses de CTmLA (5x105) na região subcapsular renal, no 15° e 30° dia após a nefrectomia 5/6, e foram acompanhados por 30 dias, totalizando 60 dias de experimento. Os animais foram subdivididos nos grupos: Sham, ratos submetidos à cirurgia fictícia; Sham+CTmLA, ratos submetidos à Sham que receberam CTmLA; Nx, ratos submetidos à nefrectomia 5/6; Nx+CTmLA, ratos Nx que receberam CTmLA. Para verificar a localização das CTmLA no tecido renal foi realizada a hibridização in situ para cromossomo XY. Foram realizadas análises dos parâmetros clínicos e laboratoriais, além de análise histológica, imunohistoquímica, PCR em tempo real e multiplex. Resultados: as CTmLA cultivadas mostraram grande capacidade de aderência, crescimento em colônia e de diferenciação em células osteogênicas, adipogênicas e condrogênicas. A análise por citometria mostrou-se positiva para CD29, CD44, CD90 e CD105, com uma pequena população de células de CD14, CD34, CD45 e CD117, confirmando a presença preponderante de CTm. Protocolo I: Após 30 dias, a inoculação de CTmLA, dose única, preveniu a elevação da pressão arterial, da proteinúria, da glomeruloesclerose, recuperando a expressão dos marcadores de podócitos, WT-1 e sinaptopodina. Entretanto, não houve efeito benéfico nos níveis de creatinina sérica e na fibrose intersticial, após 30 e 60 dias. O tratamento com CTmLA promoveu uma diminuição marcante do número de macrófagos e uma discreta queda dos leucócitos no infiltrado inflamatório renal, além da diminuição do número de miofibroblastos no interstício renal. Citocinas pró-inflamatórias foram encontradas em menor concentração no tecido renal dos animais que receberam CTmLA (IL-1beta, TNF-alfa, MCP-1 e RANTES). Não houve alteração significativa das citocinas Th1 e Th2, exceto por um aumento da IL-4 nos animais tratados com CTmLA. Os animais que foram acompanhados por 60 dias tiveram uma melhora da proteinúria, da glomeruloesclerose, diminuição do infiltrado de macrófagos e uma melhora da expressão de WT-1. Não foram observadas diferenças estatísticas nos parâmetros de creatinina sérica e fibrose intersticial, aos 30 e 60 dias. Protocolo II: Nos animais que receberam a segunda dose de CTmLA e foram acompanhados por 60 dias observou-se prevenção da elevação da pressão arterial e da proteinúria, além de uma marcante diminuição da fibrose intersticial. Em conclusão, o presente estudo mostrou, pela primeira vez, que a terapia com CTmLA foi capaz de induzir renoproteção nos animais com doença renal crônica estabelecida. O tratamento com CTmLA pode representar uma nova abordagem terapêutica bloqueando a progressão da doença renal crônica / Mesenchymal stem cells (mSC) represent therapeutic potential for the treatment of renal diseases, due to their ability to induce tissue regeneration and functional recovery. Human amniotic fluid stem cells (AFmSC) are a class of fetal, pluripotent stem cells, which present characteristics intermediate between embryonic and adult stem cells. These cells are characterized by the expression of mesenchymal stem cells markers. In addition, they have the ability to differentiate into lineages of all embryonic germ layers. They also show high proliferative rates, but do not induce tumor formation. Therefore, AFmSC are considered to be a very promising cell source and these characteristics have generated a great interest concerning their potential renoprotective effects. The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of AFmSC in an experimental model of chronic kidney disease, the 5/6 nephrectomy model (Nx), after the disease has been established, in order to more closely resemble the clinical settings in humans. AFmSC derived from second-trimester amniocentesis were isolated by plastic adhesion. After 4-7 passages, AFmSC characteristics were confirmed by flow cytometry and by their ability to differentiate into osteogenic, adipogenic and chondrogenic lineages. Two experimental protocols were performed: In protocol I, rats underwent 5/6 nephrectomy (Nx) or sham surgery at day 0, received at day 15 a single dose of hAFmSC (5x105 cells) injected under the renal capsule and were studied at day 30 and 60 days. In protocol II, rats underwent Nx or sham surgery, and received at days 15 and 30, two doses of hAFmSC (5x105 cells) injected under the renal capsule, and were studied at day 60. In both protocols, the animals were subdivided into four groups: Sham, rats submitted to fictitious surgery; Sham+hAFmSC, Sham rats that received hAFmSC; Nx, rats submitted to nephrectomy 5/6; Nx+hAFmSC, Nx rats receiving hAFmSC. The hAFmSC were followed in the renal tissue by in situ hybridization for XY chromosome. In all the groups, clinical and histological parameters were analyzed by immunohistochemistry and real-time PCR. Results: AFmSC cultivated demonstrated an ability to adhere to plastic, to grow in colonies and to differentiate in osteogenic, adipogenic and chondrogenic cells. Quantitative analysis of cell markers by flow cytometry showed that isolated cells were positive for CD29, CD44, CD90 and CD105, with a small population of cells positive for CD14, CD34, CD45 and CD117, confirming a preponderant presence of mSC. Protocol I: After 30 days, the single dose of hAFmSC significantly reduced the blood pressure levels, proteinuria, glomerulosclerosis and improved the expression of podocytes markers, WT-1 and synaptopodin. A marked decrease on the number of macrophages and a discrete decrease of leucocyte infiltration, as well as a reduction of interstitial myofibroblasts was observed. Treatment with hAFmSC significantly reduced some proinflammatory cytokines (IL1beta, TNF-alpha, MCP-1 and RANTES). No significant difference in Th1 or Th2 cytokines was observed, except for IL-4 increase in Nx rats treated with hAFmSC. At 60 days of follow-up, Nx rats treated with hAFmSC presented reduced proteinuria, glomerulosclerosis and macrophages besides increase in WT-1 expression. No improvements were observed on serum creatinine and of interstitial fibrosis, after 30 and 60 days. Protocol II: Inoculation of two doses of hAFmSC in Nx rats improved blood pressure levels, proteinuria and interstitial fibrosis at day 60. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated, for the first time, that hAFmSC induced renoprotection in animals with established chronic kidney disease. Treatment with hAFmSC may represent a novel therapeutic approach for blocking the progression of chronic kidney disease

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末期腎衰竭乃是一種慢性並且會持續惡化的疾病，現時唯一的治療方案便是腎功能替代療法。在香港，一般新發現患有末期腎衰竭的病人，將會被安排進行持續性家居腹膜透析。接受持續性家居腹膜透析的病人均需遵照以下四項治療性方案(包括限制膳食和流質食物，服用處方葯物，及跟從腹膜透析的指引)，以減慢病程的惡化。以往有關病人遵照治療性方案的研究，大多側重於使用血液透析的病人及醫護專業人仕的評估。本研究的目的乃是從現正進行持續性家居腹膜透析的病人的觀點，去明白及解釋病人遵照治療性方案的模式。 / 此硏究採用混合方法硏究設計，並分兩期進行。在第一期的調查，173位病人自我評估其遵照治療性方案中四個環節的程度。調查結果顯示:參加對葯物及腹膜透析的遵照程度，比限制膳食和流質食物的遵照程度為高。再者，男性、較年青、或進行了透析治療一至三年的參加者，自覺其遵照程度比其他參加者為低。此調查結果將指導第二期硏究的最大變化採樣，方法是跟據參加者自我報告其遵照治療性方案的程度分為跟從及不跟從兩組，硏究採用立意取樣方法去選取36位不同性別、年齡、及透析年歷的參加者作第二期硏究的面談。整合第一期的調查及第二期的面談結果後，硏究為參加者遵照治療性方案的模式提供了解釋。 / 結果顯示參加者的遵照模式乃是一個浮動過程，此過程可分為三個階段: 起初的遵照模式、隨後的遵照模式、及長期的遵照模式。在起初的遵照模式階段，參加者嘗試嚴謹地遵照各項治療性方案，但體會到這是不能持久的。在進行了透析二至六個月後，參加進入隨後的遵照模式，透過試驗、監察及不斷的調校，參加者學會選擇性地去遵照某些治療性方案。當參加者接受透析三至五年後，他們開始進入長期的遵照模式，在這階段，參加者已能將自行修改了的治療性方案融入日常的生活當中。 / 參加者遵照治療性方案的浮動過程，乃是受其「抱怨失去自主及常規」和「嘗試挽回自主及常規」所驅使。此浮動情況在每個階段都會發生。除了透析年歷，影響參加者遵照治療性方案的決定性因素乃是其家人及醫護專業人仕的支持。參加並認為醫護專業人仕非常強調其需絶對遵照所有治療性方案，反眏現行以治療為本的照料模式。 / 此硏究在理論及臨床上皆有貢獻。在理論方面，此乃首個硏究確立接受持續性家居腹膜透析的病人，在遵照治療性方案的浮動過程中出現的三個階段。在臨床上，此三個階段的確立可作為策劃護理方案的參照，以幫助病人順利過渡各個階段。硏究的結果亦倡導醫療模式的轉變，即由以治療作主導的模式轉變為以病人為本的照料模式，授權病人在末期腎衰竭的治療過程中參與自我料理。 / End-stage renal disease (ESRD) is a chronic, progressive and debilitating illness with renal replacement therapy (RRT) as the only treatment modality. In Hong Kong, patients newly diagnosed with ESRD who require RRT are generally started on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Patients receiving CAPD are required to adhere to a renal therapeutic regimen comprising four components (dietary and fluid restrictions, and medication and dialysis prescriptions) to decelerate disease progression. Studies on patients' adherence have mainly focused on those undergoing haemodialysis and are generally from healthcare professionals' perspectives. The aim of this study was to understand and explain adherence from the perspectives of patients undergoing CAPD. / The study employed a mixed-methods design and was conducted in two phases. In phase I, a survey was conducted to examine 173 patients' self-reported adherence to the four components of the therapeutic regimen. Results showed that participants were more adherent to dialysis and medication prescriptions than to fluid and dietary restrictions. Moreover, participants who were male, younger or had received dialysis for 1 to 3 years rated themselves as more non-adherent than other participants. These findings guided the maximum variation sampling of 36 purposively recruited participants of different genders, ages, and duration of dialysis from the adherent and non-adherent groups for the phase II interview. The survey and interview data were merged in the interpretation of findings to provide an understanding of participants' adherence. / Findings indicate that participants' adherence was a dynamic process with three stages: initial adherence, subsequent adherence and long-term adherence. At the stage of initial adherence, participants attempted to follow instructions but found that strict persistent adherence was impossible. After the first 2 to 6 months of dialysis, participants entered the stage of subsequent adherence. Through experimenting, monitoring and making continuous adjustments, they learned to adopt selective adherence. The stage of long-term adherence commenced after participants had received dialysis for more than 3 to 5 years. At this stage, they were able to assimilate the modified therapeutic regimen into everyday life. / The dynamic process of adherence was driven by "grieving for the loss of autonomy and normality" and "attempting to regain autonomy and normality". The process was dynamic as there were fluctuations at each stage of the participants' adherence. In addition to the duration of dialysis, the major determinant influencing the participants' adherence was the support provided by family members and healthcare professionals. Moreover, participants perceived that the focus of care provision was on strict adherence to all components of the therapeutic regimen, reflecting a biomedical model of care. / This study has theoretical and clinical significance. Theoretically, this is the first study that identified three stages in the dynamic process of adherence among patients undergoing CAPD. Clinically, with reference to each stage identified, nursing interventions can be developed to help patients achieve a smooth transition throughout all the stages. The findings also call for a paradigm shift from the biomedical model of care to patient-centred care, so as to empower patients to engage in self-management of their ESRD. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Lam, Lai Wah. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references. / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese; some appendixes also in Chinese. / LIST OF TABLES --- p.xv / LIST OF FIGURES --- p.xvi / LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS --- p.xvii / LIST OF APPENDICES --- p.xviii / Chapter CHAPTER ONE --- INTRODUCTION / Introduction --- p.1 / ESRD and its management in the Hong Kong context --- p.2 / The research problem --- p.3 / Aim of the study --- p.6 / Overview of the thesis --- p.6 / Chapter CHAPTER TWO --- LITERATURE REVIEW / Introduction --- p.7 / Literature search strategies --- p.7 / The concept of adherence --- p.8 / Theoretical models used to understand adherence --- p.14 / Health belief model --- p.14 / Locus of control --- p.16 / Self-efficacy --- p.19 / Transtheoretical model --- p.22 / Measurement of adherence --- p.24 / Prevalence of adherence --- p.27 / Patients undergoing HD --- p.28 / Patients undergoing PD --- p.31 / Factors influencing patients’ adherence --- p.34 / Demographic and clinical characteristics --- p.34 / Social support --- p.37 / Knowledge about adherence --- p.39 / Chinese culture --- p.43 / Exploring adherence from patients’ perspectives --- p.47 / Adherence among patients undergoing dialysis in Hong Kong --- p.51 / An introduction to the concept of self-management --- p.52 / Summary --- p.53 / Chapter CHAPTER THREE --- METHODOLOGY / Introduction --- p.56 / Aim --- p.56 / Objectives --- p.56 / Operational definitions --- p.57 / Research design --- p.57 / The paradigm of mixed methods research --- p.58 / Justification for using a mixed methods design --- p.60 / Application of the mixed methods design --- p.61 / Phase I study --- p.67 / Sampling --- p.67 / Setting --- p.67 / Sampling method and sample size --- p.67 / Data collection method --- p.68 / Instrument --- p.68 / Data collection procedures --- p.70 / Data analysis --- p.70 / Pilot Study --- p.71 / Validity and reliability --- p.72 / Phase II study --- p.74 / Sampling --- p.74 / Sample size --- p.74 / Sampling method --- p.75 / Data collection method --- p.80 / Semi-structured interview --- p.80 / Development of the interview guide --- p.81 / Data collection procedures --- p.82 / Making contact with participants --- p.82 / The interviewing process --- p.83 / Data analysis --- p.87 / Pilot study --- p.89 / Rigour of the study --- p.91 / Credibility --- p.91 / Dependability --- p.95 / Confirmability --- p.95 / Transferability --- p.95 / Ethical considerations --- p.96 / Summary --- p.98 / Chapter CHAPTER FOUR --- FINDINGS OF THE PHASE I STUDY / Introduction --- p.99 / Results --- p.99 / Participants --- p.99 / Demographic and clinical characteristics of the participants --- p.100 / Overall adherence to the therapeutic regimen --- p.103 / Number of days non-adherent to the therapeutic regimen --- p.103 / Degree of deviation from the therapeutic regimen --- p.104 / Adherence in relation to demographic and clinical variables --- p.106 / Summary --- p.109 / Chapter CHAPTER FIVE --- FINDINGS OF THE PHASE II STUDY / Introduction --- p.110 / Demographic and clinical characteristics of the participants --- p.110 / Major categories and subcategories identified --- p.115 / Perceptions of adherence --- p.117 / Meaning of adherence --- p.117 / Perceived needs to adhere --- p.118 / Perceived levels of adherence --- p.120 / The process of adherence --- p.123 / Initial adherence --- p.124 / Practising two major types of adherence --- p.124 / Striving to live with strict adherence --- p.124 / Doing what I am told --- p.124 / Trying my best --- p.125 / Exercising self-control --- p.127 / Adopting partial adherence --- p.128 / Recognizing limitations of current types of adherence --- p.129 / Sacrificing freedom for strict adherence --- p.129 / Social restriction --- p.129 / Having nothing to eat --- p.132 / Paying the price of inadequate adherence --- p.133 / Physiological complications --- p.134 / Need for additional treatment --- p.136 / Harsh comments from healthcare professionals --- p.137 / Realizing the need for changes in adherence --- p.139 / Rationalising an easy-going approach to adherence --- p.139 / Seeing the need for stricter adherence --- p.144 / Subsequent adherence --- p.146 / Experimenting with an easy-going approach to adherence --- p.147 / Allowing some slippage --- p.147 / Monitoring indicators of adherence --- p.148 / Making continuous adjustments --- p.149 / Adopting selective adherence --- p.153 / Long-term adherence --- p.158 / Factors influencing the process of living with adherence --- p.159 / Support --- p.159 / Family members --- p.159 / Healthcare professionals --- p.163 / Hope for the future --- p.165 / Situational factors --- p.168 / Dinning out --- p.169 / Employment --- p.171 / Summary --- p.173 / Chapter CHAPTER SIX --- DISCUSSION / Introduction --- p.177 / The dynamic process of adherence --- p.179 / Initial adherence --- p.182 / Following instructions --- p.182 / Grieving for the loss of autonomy and normality --- p.184 / Social restriction --- p.185 / Unmet nutritional and psychosocial needs --- p.187 / Subsequent adherence --- p.193 / Experimenting with an easy-going approach to adherence --- p.193 / Attempting to regain autonomy and normality --- p.198 / Dialysis --- p.199 / Medication --- p.201 / Fluid --- p.204 / Diet --- p.205 / Long-term adherence --- p.209 / Support as a major determinant of adherence --- p.212 / Family --- p.213 / Healthcare professionals --- p.216 / Biomedical model of care --- p.221 / Disease-oriented perspective --- p.222 / One-way paternalistic communication --- p.228 / Summary --- p.232 / Chapter CHAPTER SEVEN --- CONCLUSIONS / Introduction --- p.235 / Limitations of the study --- p.235 / Implications --- p.237 / Implications for clinical practice --- p.237 / Initial stage --- p.237 / Provision of timely appropriate support --- p.238 / Psychological support --- p.238 / On-site support --- p.239 / Adjustment of the CAPD training content --- p.240 / Empowering patients for self-management of their ESRD --- p.241 / Subsequent stage --- p.244 / Long-term stage --- p.245 / Implications for administration --- p.246 / Implications for nursing education --- p.247 / Recommendations for further research --- p.249 / Conclusions --- p.252 / REFERENCES --- p.254

<p>U eksperimantalnom postupku disertacije mi&scaron;evi NMRI soja su tretirani infuzom biljke Aristolochia clematitis. Sasu&scaron;eni listovi, grane i plodovi biljke potopljeni su u ključalu vodu i ostavljeni 3-5 sati da stoje, a potom su profiltrirani kroz filter papir. Pravljen je rastvor biljke/vode od 10g/ 1000ml (1%), 20g/ 1000ml (2%) i 40g/ 1000ml (4%). Različite koncentracije infuza su date mi&scaron;evima da piju u neograničenoj količini u periodu od 7 nedelja. Tako su formirane tri ispitne grupe, prva koja je primala 1% infuz, druga 2% infuz i treća 4% infuz i kontrolna grupa koja je dobijala samo vodu da pije. U svakoj grupi je bilo 20 životinja. Tako je razvijen animalni model hronične toksičnosti. Na kraju eksperimenta je urađena patohistolo&scaron;ka analiza bubrega, makroskopski pregled organa i merenje diureze tokom trajanja eksperimenta. Urađena je kompletna analiza urina koja podrazumeva utvrđivanje: boje, izgleda, pH, specifične težine, proteina i sedimenta urina. Analize urina ponavljane su na svakih 7 dana u toku 7 nedelja istraživanja. Na kraju eksperimenta urađena je analiza biohemijskih parametara (glukoza, urea, kreatinin, mokraćna kiselina, ukupni bilirubin, direktni bilirubin, ukupni tj. totalni proteini, natrijum i kalijum) i analiza kompletne krvne slike. Utvrđeno je da je Aristolochia clematitis izrazito nefrotoksična biljka. Utvrđene su patohistolo&scaron;ke promene tubula i intersitcijuma NMRI mi&scaron;a, koje su bile najveće u ispitnoj grupi koja je primala najaču dozu. Ustanovljene&nbsp; patohistolo&scaron;ke promene su slične opisanim patohistolo&scaron;kim promenama tubulointersticijuma bolesnika obolelih od Balkanske endemske nefropatije. Nije ustanovljeno postojanja karcinoma gornjeg urotrakta. Makroskopskim pregledom prilikom obdukcije eksperimentalnih životinja nisu ustanovljene značajnije promene bubrega. Do&scaron;lo je prvo do izrazitog porasta diureze u prvoj, odnosno drugoj nedelji praćenja, kod druge i treće eksperimentalne grupe, da bi nakon 7 nedelja istaživanja diureza u svim ispitnim grupama bila manja od kontrolne grupe. Postoji porast ureje na kraju istraživanja, koji je dvostruko veći u trećoj eksperimentalnoj grupi u odnosu na kontrolnu. Postoji izrazit pad mokraćne kiseline na kraju istraživanja kod eksperimentalne grupe 3. Postoji izrazit pad granulocita u leukocitarnoj formuli u svim ispitnim grupama, a najveći je u trećoj ispitnoj grupi. Kako je do&scaron;lo do pada relativnih vrednosti granulocita, tako je do&scaron;lo do porasta relativnih vrednosti limfocita u prvoj i drugoj ispitnoj grupi. U trećoj ispitnoj grupi je pad granulocita praćen izrazito velikim povećanjem relativnog broja bazofilnih granulocita. Postoji značajan pad specifične težine urina na kraju istraživanja u drugoj i trećoj eksperimentalnoj grupi. Proteinurija je bila čest nalaz svim eksperimentalnim grupama, dok je bila odsutna ili samo u tragu u kontrolnoj grupi. Na kraju eksperimenta je utvrđen znatni porast broja kristala fosfata u eksperimentalnim grupama. Cilindri su se pojavljivali samo u nalazu urina u trećoj ispitnoj grupi. Najveći broj promena urina je utvrđen u trećoj eksperimentlanoj grupi.</p> / <p>In the experimental procedure of dissertation, NMRI strain mice were treated with infusion of plants Aristolochia clematitis. Dried leaves, branches and fruit plants are submerged in boiling water and left to stand for 3-5 hours, and then filtered through filter paper. It was made a solution of the plant / water of 10g / 1000ml (1%), 20g / 1000ml (2%) and 40g / 1000ml (4%). Different concentrations of infusions were given to mice to drink an unlimited amount for a period of 7 weeks. So we formed the three test groups, the first who received 1% infusion, the second received 2% infusion and third received 4% infusion and a control group that received only water to drink. In each group there were 20 animals. Thus, developed an animal model of chronic toxicity. At the end of the experiment was performed histopathological analysis of kidneys, macroscopic examination of organs and measuring urine output during the experiment. We performed a complete analysis of urine, which is the determination of: color, appearance, pH, specific gravity, protein and urine sediment. Urinalysis were repeated every 7 days during the 7 weeks of the study. At the end of the experiment were analyzed for biochemical parameters (glucose, urea, creatinine, uric acid, total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, total proteins, sodium and potassium) and analysis of the complete blood count. It has been found that Aristolochia clematitis is extremely nephrotoxic plant. Identified histopathological changes of tubules and interstitium of NMRI mouse, which were the biggest in the test group receiving biggest dose. Established histopathological changes are similar to those described by pathological changes of tubulointerstitial injury of patients with Balkan endemic nephropathy. Not established the existence of cancer of the upper urinary tract. Macroscopic examination at autopsy of experimental animals, did not determine significant changes in the kidneys. There is first an enormous increase in diuresis in the first and second week of follow-up, in the second and third experimental groups retrospectively, that after 7 weeks of research, diuresis in all test groups was lower than the control group. There is an increase of urea at the end of the research, which is twice higher in the third experimental group compared to the control. There is a marked decrease in uric acid at the end of the research in the experimental group 3. There is a marked decrease in granulocytes in the leukocyte formula in all test groups, and the highest in the third test group. As the decline in the relative values of granulocytes, so there has been a rise in the relative values of lymphocite in the first and second test group. In the third test group, granulocyte drop was accompanied by a extremely large increase in the relative number of basophils. There is a significant drop in specific gravity of urine at the end of the research in the second and third experimental group. Proteinuria is a common finding to all experimental groups, while it was absent or only in traces in the control group. At the end of the experiment was determined to increase significantly the number of phosphate crystals in the experimental groups. The cylinders have appeared only in the urine in the third test group. The greatest number of changes in the urine is determined in the third experimental group.</p>