This thesis investigates the development of the present-day linguistic hegemonies within Italy and Norway as products of ongoing linguistic ‘wars of position’. Language activist movements have been key actors in these struggles, and this study seeks to address how such movements have operated in attempts to translate their linguistic ideologies into de facto language policy through mechanisms such as political agitation, propaganda and the use of language in public spaces. It also reveals which other extra-linguistic values and ideologies have become associated with or allied to these linguistic causes in recent years, how these ideologies have affected language policy, and whether such ideological alliances have been representative of language users’ ideologies. The study is informed by an innovative methodological framework combining the theories and metaphors of Antonio Gramsci (including hegemony and wars of position as well as his linguistic writings) with the theories of Stein Rokkan on cultural-political cleavage structures and the relationships between centres and peripheries. These constructs and relationships are thereafter documented as ideologically defining strands running through the history of the movements studied, through reference to activist periodicals and party newspapers. In Italy, the focus of the research is on the Lega Nord (Northern League), a far-right populist autonomist political movement. The Lega has sought to legitimise its imagination of a northern nation (‘Padania’) by portraying the dialects of northern Italy as minority languages, emphasising the hegemonic relationship between the Italian national language and northern dialects. The movement has also used this perception of northern dialects as peripheral and suppressed by Italian to bolster its depiction of ‘Padania’ as a wealthy periphery allegedly held back by central and southern Italy. Although this campaign has achieved some successes in increased visibility of dialects in public spaces, dialects largely remain restricted to ‘low’-status domains. In Norway, the thesis devotes special attention to the post-war efforts of the counter-hegemonic campaign for the Nynorsk standard of Norwegian, which was devised as a common denominator for Norwegian dialects, as opposed to the hegemonic standard Bokmål, which is a Norwegianisation of written Danish. In opposing the challenges of globalisation and centralisation, the Nynorsk movement has retained a radical character and is generally associated with a left-wing variant of nationalism, a key part of the Norwegian cultural cleavage structure. The social argumentation of the Nynorsk movement was instrumental in its successful promotion of dialects, now seen as an unstigmatised means of spoken communication in all social contexts.

Over the last few decades, minority language issues have been attracting increasing attention in the media, among academics, and in the affairs of national governments and international organizations. Nowhere has this been truer than in the European Union, where concern over the ‘endangered languages crisis’ has led to an increasing awareness of Europe’s small languages and of the challenges they face in a globalised, English-dominated linguistic marketplace. A more tangible outcome of this concern has been a growth in rhetoric within EU institutions advocating a general respect for multilingualism and linguistic diversity, and a series of support measures and resolutions designed to guarantee this. Despite the widespread rhetoric of concern and support, however, in terms of concrete legislation there is still a wide gap between debate and policy in Europe, and until now it has been left unclear to what extent this gap is actually affecting the vitality and prospects of individual minority languages. This dissertation addresses this question by analysing how the European Union, both in the by-products of the integration process and in its deliberate rhetoric of support, is impacting the vitality of three specific minority language communities: Galician in Spain, Corsican in France and Sorbian in Germany. Drawing upon research collected via sociolinguistic surveys in these communities, it attempts to gauge whether Europe as an integrated entity is positively or negatively affecting the prospects of minority languages within its borders; if member state policies toward their minorities have been positively swayed by European rhetoric; if minority language speakers themselves see a positive effect on language use from European policy and promotion; and whether the role of English as a necessary lingua franca inside and outside Europe is eroding the position of the minority languages as the second language of choice. Quantitative and qualitative analysis on the survey results indicate that unfortunately, despite the amount of attention these minority languages receive from both government and media, language decline seems to show no sign of abating in any of these communities, and indeed the actions of the EU are apparently having very little impact on individual language situations. In addition, the survey indicates that hostile or indifferent member state policy is continuing to be one of the biggest stumbling blocks to minority language maintenance in Europe. From this perspective it seems reasonable to assess that the EU has in effect failed at what it claims to be trying to achieve, namely to provide a social and political climate that is favourable to minority language maintenance, and to assume that if this is the case in these three communities it is likely to be the case across Europe. With this in mind, the study concludes with the recommendation that the EU reconsider its involvement in language matters across the board, particularly in its current working-language structure and the reluctance to put some force of law behind its minority language support, and cautions that without this, the EU will likely face the imminent erosion of much of the very diversity upon which it has been built.

In Kuwait, the English language is increasingly gaining importance signifying globalisation and internationalisation of the local culture and linguistic environment. Alongside the positive effects of the wide-spread usage of English there are negative tendencies which emerge onto the scene. This thesis is concerned with the educational aspects of such influences where it explored trainee teachers’ conceptualisations of English as an international / global language, and examined the implications of current views of English for teacher preparation in light of the most recent methodological trends such as global English delivery, expansion of teacher knowledge base, the introduction of linguistic rights and instructional policies to educational stakeholders, and the merging of language and culture in English language teaching. Through questionnaires and in-depth interviews the study found that the relationship between the local and global in Kuwait is a complex issue with social, educational and political implications. Multiple functions for English and its status within the local context were voiced and consequently alternative futures for Standard Arabic as the main source and medium of local literacy and language of academia against the background of rapid Anglicisation emerged. The results may attract the attention of Kuwait’s educational theorists and practitioners, and the hopeful outcome would be to inspire teachers to engage in critical thinking and challenge their realities; and encourage Kuwait’s educational policy makers to find a balance between the source and target languages/cultures, as well as bring to the foreground local expertise and knowledge.

D.Litt. et Phil.

Thesis (M.A.)--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Humanities, African Literature, 2014. / The purpose of this research project was to investigate the role of the publishing industry in supporting and promoting isiZulu fiction in South Africa. The research first highlighted the contribution made by the missionaries in the 19th century in publishing literature in indigenous languages in general and in isiZulu fiction in particular. This aspect followed by a discussion of the impact of apartheid’s publishing policies on literature in indigenous African languages. This section then followed by the discussion of the strategies and initiatives that have been introduced in order to preserve and promote this literary tradition in the post-apartheid period. This research assessed OUPSA’s book chain process in order to investigate how the book industry contributes to the post-1994 initiatives of promoting creative writing in indigenous languages. It argued that book publishing is not the end of the book provision process, instead marketing and distribution chain, selection of fiction in schools and libraries, lack of experience of librarians, shortage of African languages fiction and financial resources in libraries as well as inconclusiveness of government policies play a huge role in the distribution process of isiZulu fiction which is pivotal to the sustainable existence of a publishing industry. In this research project, different aspects of the book chain process were investigated, such as: publishing and distribution, schools and public libraries, schools and education and literacy level to find out the link between publishing and libraries and schools. It is hoped that the findings of the investigation identified the significant inhibiting factors which may prevent the provision of isiZulu fiction books to libraries and schools that may have been caused by the methods in which books were commissioned, marketing strategies and implementation of the language policy, especially as to how it affects the promotion and rejuvenation of literatures in African languages.

Student Number : 0311394E - MA research report - School of Literature and Language Studies - Faculty of Humanities / The present study on ‘Multilingualism and change on the Kinyarwanda sound system post-1994’ focuses on sociolinguistic approaches oriented to the effects of language contact to Kinyarwanda sound change. Many studies on various multilingual societies have been conducted, and most of them have focused on multilingualism and language policy, education and social integration in different multilingual societies. In particular, most studies conducted on the new linguistic configuration of Rwanda have focused on language attitudes in a multilingual context, but none of them has tackled the issue of multilingualism and sound change as a result of language contact. The main hypothesis expounded in this research is that Kinyarwanda sound variants that can be heard from current speech arise owing to Kinyarwanda speakers’ language background. In the light of the literature review on multilingualism and sound change, an extensive analysis of the most prominent linguistic variables of sound variation in Kinyarwanda was done, and its evaluation shows that there have been shifts in the sound system of Kinyarwanda post-1994. It has been shown that some sounds were modified or shifted to other sounds which exist in neighbouring languages because of contact. In addition to that, it has been argued that this sound variation has been possible mainly because Kinyarwanda came into contact with other languages which have different sound systems. It is hoped that this research will add a new dimension to studies of multilingualism within Bantu languages and will contribute to yielding a solution to the Rwandan language problem because of suggestions related to how the Kinyarwanda sound system can be standardized.

This research was conducted in the particular context of the 2009 new language in education policy in Rwanda. The problem examined within this context, concerns the attitudes and motivation of teachers and students from different language backgrounds (both Anglophone and Francophone) as they have experienced the shift from French and/or English as MoI to the sole use of English as medium of instruction (MoI) in education, all the way from the Primary School stage up to and including tertiary institutes. In this unique context where English was being used as MoI whilst simultaneously learning the language, the aim of this study was to investigate an often overlooked psychological aspect of the language policy shift literature, viz., Teachers’ and Students’ Attitudes and Motivation toward learning English; and toward using it for teaching and learning. Through the lens of Gardner’s (1985) second language (L2) motivation construct as a theoretical framework; this study used quantitative and qualitative methods of enquiry in the context of Mixed Methods approach, to ascertain implementers’ reaction amid challenges of policy change. The study established that, in a quasi monolingual society with Kinyarwanda as the national language, Teacher Training College (TTC) teachers and students form a diverse community of language users; that they converge on knowledge and use of English despite this diversity; that they hold positive attitudes toward learning the language and using it as MoI; and that the main reason for these positive attitudes is that the use of English as MoI offers an opportunity to learn the language. This study thus recommends that all stakeholders in the education enterprise in Rwanda be sensitized on the necessity to distinguish between the tasks of learning English and using it for teaching and learning.

Segundo os principais representantes da atual política linguística espanhola, o español general é uma variedade transnacional da língua. Comum, neutra e globalizada, não se impõe a ninguém, mas faz parte do repertório linguístico de todo falante culto do mundo hispânico. Nas últimas décadas, e com diferentes nomes, ele habita os instrumentos normativos produzidos pelas academias de la lengua, protagoniza grandes eventos promovidos pelo Instituto Cervantes e é difundido mundo afora como língua estrangeira pela mesma instituição, carro chefe do atual projeto de planificação linguística do Estado espanhol. O presente estudo trata de situar o dito español general na política linguística espanhola da década de 90 do século XX até o final da primeira década do século XXI e tem como tese central que a invenção, promoção, defesa e difusão dessa variedade visam a comercialização da língua. A pesquisa se situa no campo teórico da glotopolítica e tem como objetivo analisar ações de política e planificação linguística esta última de acordo com o modelo de Robert Cooper e as ideologias que as acompanham. Para tanto se faz, por meio de revisão bibliográfica, uma análise da conformação do habitus linguístico espanhol desde sua instalação no Novo Mundo, a posição que ocupou nas jovens nações americanas no momento das independências, o surgimento e construção da autoridade linguística da Real Academia de la Lengua Española até sua atual política linguística panhispánica. Analisa-se também a criação e atuação do Instituto Cervantes (por meio da propaganda por ele veiculada, seus eventos e discursos de seus representantes), instituição espanhola responsável pela difusão e expansão mundial da língua. O presente estudo não poderia se realizar sem levar em conta o contexto político, social e econômico em que se elabora e executa o projeto de planificação linguística analisado, além de tratar de avaliar em que medida a ideia de língua enquanto activo económico (recurso e ativo econômico) serve de motor para tal projeto. Finalmente, são analisados os instrumentos linguísticos elaborados e adotados pelo Instituto Cervantes currículos, livros didáticos e manual de estilo com o objetivo de verificar de que maneira a planificação linguística espanhola chega à sala de aula e qual é a língua-produto adquirida pelo aluno de espanhol como língua estrangeira (mercado internacional). Toda a análise realizada ao longo deste estudo termina por revelar quem é e como soa o tão festejado español general. / According to the current main researchers on Spanish Language Policy Studies, the español general is a transnational variety of the language. As it is ordinary, neutral and globalized, it cannot be imposed on anybody, but it is part of the linguistic repertoire of every educated speaker in the Hispanic World. For the past decades, and bearing different names, it has been referred to in all normative documents written by the academias de la lengua, has been the theme of important events promoted by the Cervantes Institute and also spread around the world as a foreign language by the same institution, the flagship of the current linguistic planning project of the Spanish State. The objective of this study is to situate the so-called español general within the Spanish language policy from the 90s of the 20th century to the end of the first decade of the 21st century. The central thesis underpinning this research is that the invention, promotion, defense and propaganda of this variety aim at the commercialization of the language. Situated in the field of Glotopolitics, this piece of research aims to analyze actions of language policy and planning the latter by following Robert Coopers model and the ideologies that accompany them. In order to do so, a bibliographical study is carried out concerning an analysis of the conformation of the Spanish linguistic habitus since its installation in the Novo Mundo, the position it occupied in the new American nations at the moment of their independence, the beginning and construction of the linguistic authority of the Real Academia de la lengua española up to its current panhispánica linguistic policy. We also analyze the creation and actions of the Cervantes Institute (through its propaganda, events and representatives speeches), the Spanish institution responsible for the language diffusion and spread in the world. This present study could not have been carried out without taking into account the political, social and economic context in which the language planning analyzed is designed and implemented. It also evaluates to what extent the concept of language as activo económico (economic resource and asset) drives such a project. Lastly, the linguistic instruments designed and adopted by the Cervantes Institute such as curricula, books and style manuals - are analyzed aiming at verifying in what ways the Spanish language planning reaches the classrooms and which is the product-language learned by the student of Spanish as a foreign language (international market). The analysis carried out reveals what the much-feted español general is and what it sounds like.

Esta dissertação faz considerações sobre a natureza da interferência derivada da introdução de variantes padrão de línguas imigrantes no currículo do sistema de escolas públicas de comunidades de falantes de dialetos. A pesquisa busca uma maior compreensão da questão por meio da análise de discurso e conteúdo encontrados em artigos de jornal, artigos disponíveis na Internet, mensagens trocadas em comunidades virtuais e quatro entrevistas colhidas de habitantes do município de Angelina em Santa Catarina, onde falantes de dialeto freqüentam escolas públicas onde o inglês é a única oferta de língua estrangeira, apesar da constituição étnica predominantemente germânica da população local. O trabalho ainda examina modelos teóricos de contato lingüístico baseados em teoria dos jogos em termos de sua relevância em um cenário mais complexo onde um dialeto coexista com sua variante padrão e uma língua nacional. / This dissertation prompts considerations about the nature of the interference deriving from the introduction of standard variants of immigrant languages into the curriculum of the public school system in communities of dialect speakers. The investigation seeks a greater understanding of the problem by means of discourse and content analysis of articles published in newspapers, articles available on the internet, forum posts, and four interviews collected from inhabitants of Angelina, a municipality in the State of Santa Catarina where dialect speakers attend public schools where English is the only foreign language option in spite of the predominantly German ethnic make-up of the local population. In addition, existing theoretical models that examine language contact from the perspective of game theory are examined in terms of their relevance in a more complex scenario where a dialect coexists with its corresponding standard variant and a national language.

Recent language policy and planning research reveals how policy-makers endorse the interests of dominant social groups, marginalise minority languages and perpetuate systems of sociolinguistic inequality. In the Castilian-dominated Galician linguistic landscape, this study examines the rise of grassroots level actors or agents (i.e. parents, family members, and other speakers of minority Galician) who play a significant role in interpreting and implementing language policy on the ground. The primary focus of this study is to investigate the impact of top-down language policies inside home domain, it looks at how the individual linguistic practices and ideologies of Galician parents act as visible and/or invisible language planning measures influencing their children’s language learning. However, these individual linguistic ideologies and language management decisions are difficult to detect because they are implicit, subtle, informal, and often hidden from the public eye, and therefore, frequently overlooked by language policy researchers and policy makers. Drawing from multiple ethnographic research methods including observations, in-depth fieldwork interviews, focus group discussions and family language audits with thirty-two Galician parents, this study attempts to ascertain whether these parents can restore intergenerational transmission of Galician and if their grassroots level interrogation of the dominant discourse could lead to bottom-up language policies.