The purpose of this case study was to examine how three undergraduate, preservice foreign language teachers' motives, sense of teacher identity, use and appropriation of teaching resources developed during the student teaching experience. Central to this study was an examination of participants’ beliefs about language learning and teaching, their motivations as language learners and teachers, and beliefs about target language use. Data were collected using student teachers’ interviews, blogs, lesson plans, and artifacts design from the student teachers. The cooperating teachers and a university supervisor were also interviewed. Triangulation and case study analysis (Merriam, 2009; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009) revealed patterns in the student teachers’ backgrounds such as their successes as language learners, their high levels of motivation to become language teachers, and their desire to use a good deal of target language in teaching. Results indicated that the student teaching experience was highly impacted by individual differences among the student teachers, the role of the cooperating teacher and context of the host classroom, and the requirements of the student teaching program. The student teachers were highly reflective on their teaching beliefs and professional identity development throughout the student teaching experience and all three participants identified clear goals for their first teaching job. Additionally, the requirements of the university and certification considerations caused the participants to emphasize target language, cultural knowledge, and teaching behaviors during their student teaching experience. / text

Die Arbeit verfolgt die Frage, wie zwei Werkzeuge der Hochschuldidaktik, das Europäische Portfolio für Sprachstudierende in Ausbildung (EPOSA) und der Englischassistent, für die Professionalisierung von zukünftigen Lehrenden an Neuen Mittelschulen unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des geänderten Verständnisses von Lehrenden als Lernbegleitern unterstützend eingesetzt werden können. Nach einer Darstellung des theoretischen Rahmens und Positionierung des Themas im Kontext, verfolgt die empirische Arbeit die Beantwortung von 20 Forschungsfragen und Untersuchung von vier Hypothesen, welche mithilfe quantitativer und qualitativer Erhebungs- und Auswertungsverfahren realisiert und an dem Anforderungsprofil für NMS-Lehrer/-innen, sowie den Konstrukten „Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung“, „Motivation“, „Autonomes Lernen“, „Lernklima“ und „Reflexionskompetenz“ orientiert ist. Die Analysen der durch Befragungen, Gruppendiskussionen und Experteninterviews gewonnenen Daten machen Ansatzpunkte und Problemfelder der Verwendung des EPOSA und Englischassistenten sichtbar. Die Ergebnisse zeigen hohe Akzeptanz des EPOSA als Reflexionstool und als Begleiter im kontinuierlichen Professionalisierungsprozess bei den befragten Personen. Große Defizite wurden in den Kompetenzbereichen des „autonomen Lernens“, „Beurteilung“ und „Kulturbewusstsein“ sichtbar gemacht. Dem Englischassistenten wird Potential vorwiegend im Bereich des Diagnosetools und als Hilfsmittel in der „professionellen Lerngemeinschaft“ zugeschrieben. Überarbeitungsbedarf wird in Bezug auf kompetenzorientierte und dem kommunikativen Ansatz folgende Aufgabenstellungen offensichtlich. Zusammenfassende Empfehlungen für die weitere Verwendung und Entwicklung der beiden Werkzeuge, sowie ein Ausblick auf geplante zukünftige Forschungstätigkeit beschließen die Arbeit. / This paper aims to answer the question how the European Portfolio for Student Teachers of Languages (EPOSTL) and the “Englischassistant” can assist the process of teacher training perceiving the teacher’s primary role as the one of a “coach” rather than an “instructor”. Following a close description of the theoretical framework and positioning the topic in its context, the empirical work is geared towards finding answers to 20 research questions and verifying four hypotheses. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used and the empirical work was oriented to requirements set in the NMS-teacher-profile and the concepts “Self-efficacy”, “Motivation”, “Independent Learning”, “Learning Climate”and “Reflective Competence”. The analyses of the data collected by means of surveys, group discussions and expert interviews made starting points and problem areas of the use of the EPOSTL and the “Englischassistent” apparent. The results showed wide acceptance of the EPOSTL as a tool to assist both reflective processes as well as life-long learning among the respondents. Deficits in the following areas of competence became obvious: “Independent Learning”, “Assessment” and “Cultural Awareness”. The “Englischassistent” was accredited potential primarily as an assessment tool and as an aid in the “Professional Learning Community”. A better orientation towards the “Communicative Approach” and developing skills was said to be urgently required. The main findings are summarized in a set of recommendations concerning further usage and development of the two tools. Together with a brief description of future research projects it can be found in the final passage of the paper.

Die Arbeit verfolgt die Frage, wie zwei Werkzeuge der Hochschuldidaktik, das Europäische Portfolio für Sprachstudierende in Ausbildung (EPOSA) und der Englischassistent, für die Professionalisierung von zukünftigen Lehrenden an Neuen Mittelschulen unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des geänderten Verständnisses von Lehrenden als Lernbegleitern unterstützend eingesetzt werden können. Nach einer Darstellung des theoretischen Rahmens und Positionierung des Themas im Kontext, verfolgt die empirische Arbeit die Beantwortung von 20 Forschungsfragen und Untersuchung von vier Hypothesen, welche mithilfe quantitativer und qualitativer Erhebungs- und Auswertungsverfahren realisiert und an dem Anforderungsprofil für NMS-Lehrer/-innen, sowie den Konstrukten „Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung“, „Motivation“, „Autonomes Lernen“, „Lernklima“ und „Reflexionskompetenz“ orientiert ist. Die Analysen der durch Befragungen, Gruppendiskussionen und Experteninterviews gewonnenen Daten machen Ansatzpunkte und Problemfelder der Verwendung des EPOSA und Englischassistenten sichtbar. Die Ergebnisse zeigen hohe Akzeptanz des EPOSA als Reflexionstool und als Begleiter im kontinuierlichen Professionalisierungsprozess bei den befragten Personen. Große Defizite wurden in den Kompetenzbereichen des „autonomen Lernens“, „Beurteilung“ und „Kulturbewusstsein“ sichtbar gemacht. Dem Englischassistenten wird Potential vorwiegend im Bereich des Diagnosetools und als Hilfsmittel in der „professionellen Lerngemeinschaft“ zugeschrieben. Überarbeitungsbedarf wird in Bezug auf kompetenzorientierte und dem kommunikativen Ansatz folgende Aufgabenstellungen offensichtlich. Zusammenfassende Empfehlungen für die weitere Verwendung und Entwicklung der beiden Werkzeuge, sowie ein Ausblick auf geplante zukünftige Forschungstätigkeit beschließen die Arbeit. / This paper aims to answer the question how the European Portfolio for Student Teachers of Languages (EPOSTL) and the “Englischassistant” can assist the process of teacher training perceiving the teacher’s primary role as the one of a “coach” rather than an “instructor”. Following a close description of the theoretical framework and positioning the topic in its context, the empirical work is geared towards finding answers to 20 research questions and verifying four hypotheses. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used and the empirical work was oriented to requirements set in the NMS-teacher-profile and the concepts “Self-efficacy”, “Motivation”, “Independent Learning”, “Learning Climate”and “Reflective Competence”. The analyses of the data collected by means of surveys, group discussions and expert interviews made starting points and problem areas of the use of the EPOSTL and the “Englischassistent” apparent. The results showed wide acceptance of the EPOSTL as a tool to assist both reflective processes as well as life-long learning among the respondents. Deficits in the following areas of competence became obvious: “Independent Learning”, “Assessment” and “Cultural Awareness”. The “Englischassistent” was accredited potential primarily as an assessment tool and as an aid in the “Professional Learning Community”. A better orientation towards the “Communicative Approach” and developing skills was said to be urgently required. The main findings are summarized in a set of recommendations concerning further usage and development of the two tools. Together with a brief description of future research projects it can be found in the final passage of the paper.

Online learning is increasingly common (Allen & Seaman, 2016). The number of online language teacher education programs also continues to rise to address the growing need for qualified language teachers worldwide (England, 2012b; Hall & Knox, 2009; Murray, 2013). Although technology offers a plethora of possibilities, course design and implementation significantly influence students' online learning experience, likelihood of success, and satisfaction. Using a socio-constructivist, student-centered learning approach can engage students through interaction and collaboration (Garrison, 2013; Murray, 2013). Murray (2013) reported details on what language teacher education programs are offered online, their challenges and how institutions have dealt with them, and highlighted the need for further research to explore the experiences and attitudes of instructors and students. The goal of this three-article dissertation is to gain insights into one online program that prepares teachers of English to speakers of other languages (TESOL), which was recently revised to make it more student-centered by implementing a group project. The first article examines benefits and challenges of the group project according to students, teachers, and the teacher training coordinator to determine its value and to provide suggestions. The second article explores instructors' perspectives of their role in the online class and group project and offers suggestions for good practice. Recognizing that online students have diverse needs, the last article analyzes profiles of students enrolled in one class in this program and their perceptions of the Community of Inquiry presences, which have been shown to support intellectual development in online courses. Mixed methods were used including an individual semi-structured interview with students, teachers, and the teacher training coordinator, observations of archived online course documents and posts, an entrance survey, the Community of Inquiry survey as well as anonymous instructor and program evaluations completed by students at the end of the course. Findings provide detailed insights into participants' perceptions of these areas addressed in each article, which shine light on strengths of the student-centered curricular innovation and areas that may need more attention.

The post-observation conference offers a potentially fecund context for promoting language teacher learning, but very little research has been conducted into how this actually happens. Taking Vygotskian sociocultural theory as its theoretical framework, this study examined the mediational discourse of a series of post-observation conferences between a mentor and two practicing English language teachers to investigate the nature of the discourse and the relationship between the mediational discourse and the language teachers` learning. Features of mediational discourse identified a priori (such as intersubjectivity, graduated and contingent help, and externalization of reasoning) were present in the data, but were found to be inadequate to lead to insights into the relationship between the language of the mediation and the development of the teachers` ability to think conceptually about language teaching. What emerged from closer analysis of the language was how the mentor`s discourse prompted the teachers to think conceptually about language teaching and modeled conceptual thinking by encapsulating the lived experience of the classroom through different types of verbal, and therefore conceptual, abstraction. Constructed dialogue was also found to be a salient feature of the discourse, and to have a cognitive function within the mediation. In terms of the relationship of the dialogue to the language teachers` learning, a micro-level analysis of single post-observation conferences revealed the dynamic flow of the mediation and instances of uptake of conceptual thinking by the teachers. A more macro-level analysis which followed mediation on a single topic for each teacher found evidence for the development of conceptual thinking in one teacher`s data but less so in the second teacher`s, and reasons for this are suggested. The results of the study also constitute a revealing account of the nature of the mediational discourse, suggesting a possible cognitive function for the different types of conceptualizations in the discourse, which has the potential to increase understanding of how verbal mediation interacts with learning, and to inform how post-observation conferences are conducted with a view to maximizing the development of conceptual thinking. The taxonomy of conceptualization identified within the mediation discourse points towards an understanding of how the idealization of lived experience and subsequent re-concretization reflect the role that language plays in the development of conceptual thinking.

Despite claims that the use of corpus tools can have a major impact in language classrooms (e.g., Conrad, 2000, 2004; Davies, 2004; O'Keefe, McCarthy, & Carter, 2007; Sinclair, 2004b; Tsui, 2004), many language teachers express apparent apathy or even resistance towards adding corpus tools to their repertoire (Cortes, 2013b). This study examines from a teacher cognition perspective (Borg, 2006) how three EAP (English for Academic Purposes) writing teachers identified their most pressing needs and considered possible ways that corpus tools might address those needs. After having an individualized corpus working session, each teacher put into practice one or more corpus tools to address self-identified needs in their writing classes. The teachers reflected on the process across a series of interviews and in a stimulated recall session, which were analyzed using qualitative research methods. Each teacher discussed the degree to which the lesson met her objectives, and considered how she might use such corpus tools in the future, as one component in the development of her teaching beliefs, knowledge base, and practices. Through thematic analysis of the interviews and the individualized corpus working sessions, themes emerged that tell the story of these three teachers as they moved through this process, relating to the issues of time, student engagement, material analysis, selection and design, issues related to corpus tools, language, institutional factors, and collaboration. A new area of specialization on the pedagogical uses of corpus tools is discussed, based on the results of the three cases. Implications for researchers, material designers, corpus tools specialists, teacher educators, administrators and teachers are considered.

The present study evaluates the language improvement courses in the undergraduate curriculum of the Department of English Language Teaching (ELT) at Eastern Mediterranean University. The language improvement courses are: Oral Communication Skills I and II, Reading Skills I, II, and Advanced Reading Skills, Writing Skills I, II and Advanced Writing Skills, and English Grammar I and II. In this evaluation study, the adapted version of Bellon and Handler&rsquo / s (1982) curriculum evaluation model was employed. The participants of the study were six instructors teaching the language improvement courses and students enrolled in these courses. The data, both qualitative and quantitative, were collected through course evaluation questionnaires for students, interviews with students and teachers, classroom observations, and examination of relevant written documents such as course policy sheets, course materials, and assessment tools used in the courses. The results of the study show that generally the language improvement courses were effective in terms of five aspects specified in the evaluation model employed in the study, as perceived by the students and the instructors. However, the students and the instructors suggested making some changes to the existing language improvement courses to make them more effective and better adjusted to the students&rsquo / needs and expectations. Some important conclusions drawn and recommendations made were: Practice (i.e. practice and production) component in the language improvement courses should be enhanced, a wider variety of authentic materials should be used in the courses, various methods and activities should be utilized in teaching-learning process, and intra-subject and inter-subject relationships (i.e. continuity and coherence) between or among the courses need to be strengthened.

Submitted by FABIANO SILVESTRE RAMOS null (fabiano.silvestre.ramos@gmail.com) on 2018-04-05T22:54:04Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Ramos (2018) - Sou porque sinto - um estudo histórico-cultural sobre identidades profissionais e emoções na formação inicial de professores de inglês.pdf: 3185749 bytes, checksum: 80a5bf0c876c25f60879120f3ee1c8f5 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Elza Mitiko Sato null (elzasato@ibilce.unesp.br) on 2018-04-06T14:20:14Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 ramos_fs_dr_sjrp.pdf: 3185749 bytes, checksum: 80a5bf0c876c25f60879120f3ee1c8f5 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-04-06T14:20:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 ramos_fs_dr_sjrp.pdf: 3185749 bytes, checksum: 80a5bf0c876c25f60879120f3ee1c8f5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-03-07 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O presente trabalho teve por objetivo estudar a inter-relação entre as emoções vivenciadas por professoras de língua inglesa em formação inicial e o processo de (re)construção de identidades profissionais. Para tanto, busco na teoria históricocultural (JOHNSON, 2009; JOHNSON e GOLOMBEK, 2011; JOHNSON e GOLOMBEK, 2016), baseada nos estudos de Vigotski e da Psicologia HistóricoCultural (VIGOTSKI, 2007, 2009, 2010; RATNER, 1995), fundamentos para explicar os fenômenos sob investigação. Emoções, portanto, são compreendidas como funções psicológicas superiores que têm influência direta na prática do sujeito historicamente situado (VIGOTSKI, 2004; 2010; TOASSA, 2009, 2011). Identidades, sob esse viés, é um conceito definido como papeis desempenhados pelo sujeito em um contexto sociocultural. São construídas no processo de interação social, por meio da mediação da linguagem e processos cognitivos (GOFFMAN, 1985; CIAMPA, 1984, 1998, 2007; De COSTA, 2017; BARKHUIZEN, 2017; LEIBOWITZ, 2017). A pesquisa foi realizada no contexto de um projeto de extensão de ensino de línguas estrangeiras, com duas professoras de língua inglesa em formação inicial. Os dados foram gerados e coletados durante dois semestres letivos por intermédio de narrativas de experiência, entrevistas orais para geração de história de vida, observação e gravação de aulas, sessões de visionamento e entrevista sobre emoções (CLARÀ, 2015). A análise dos dados sugere uma inter-relação de natureza recíproca entre as emoções vivenciadas pelas participantes e as identidades profissionais construídas e negociadas em sua prática pedagógica. As emoções atuam como mediação entre o profissional e sua ação, fator essencial para a construção de uma identidade. Revelam ainda uma gama de emoções vivenciadas que provocam diferentes reações nas participantes, não podendo, assim, classificá-las como negativas ou positivas. Por fim, ressalta-se a necessidade de um trabalho no sentido de promoção de um letramento emocional nos cursos de formação de professores de língua inglesa, para que os futuros profissionais tenham a habilidade para lidar com suas próprias emoções e as de seus estudantes. / The present study aimed at investigating the interrelationship between the emotions experienced by English language teachers in initial education and the process of (re) construction of professional identities. To achieve this goal, I analyzed the phenomena under a historical-cultural lens (JOHNSON, 2009; JOHNSON e GOLOMBEK, 2011; JOHNSON e GOLOMBEK, 2016), based on the studies of Vigotski and the Historical-Cultural Psychology (VIGOTSKI, 2007, 2009, 2010; RATNER, 1995). Emotions, therefore, are understood as higher psychological functions that have a direct influence on the practice of the historically situated subject (VIGOTSKI, 2004; 2010; TOASSA, 2009, 2011). Identities, under this bias, is a concept defined as roles played by the subject in a sociocultural context. They are constructed in the process of social interaction, through the mediation of language and cognitive processes (GOFFMAN, 1985; CIAMPA, 1984, 1998, 2007; De COSTA, 2017; BARKHUIZEN, 2017; LEIBOWITZ, 2017). The research was carried out in the context of an extension project on foreign language teaching, with two English language teachers in the process of initial education. The data were generated and collected during two academic semesters by means of the use of narratives of experience, oral interviews for generation of life history, observation and class recordings, viewing sessions and interview about emotions (CLARÀ, 2015). Data analysis suggests a reciprocal interrelationship between the emotions experienced by the participants and the professional identities built and negotiated in their pedagogical practice. Emotions act as mediation between the professionals and their actions, an essential factor for the construction of identities. It also reveals a range of emotions experienced that provoke different reactions in the participants. Thus, they cannot, therefore, be classified into a negative or positive spectrum. Finally, it shows a need for actions to promote emotional literacy in English-language teacher education courses, so that future professionals have the ability to deal with their own emotions and those of their students. / 88881.135135/2016-01

Submitted by Mariana da Silva Cassemiro null (ma.cassemiro@gmail.com) on 2018-04-05T22:37:37Z No. of bitstreams: 1 TESE VOLUME FINAL_Mariana Cassemiro.pdf: 2065397 bytes, checksum: 77a5727a6184b672736d2db4f6796d02 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Elza Mitiko Sato null (elzasato@ibilce.unesp.br) on 2018-04-06T17:45:28Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 cassemiro_ms_dr_sjrp.pdf: 2065397 bytes, checksum: 77a5727a6184b672736d2db4f6796d02 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-04-06T17:45:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 cassemiro_ms_dr_sjrp.pdf: 2065397 bytes, checksum: 77a5727a6184b672736d2db4f6796d02 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-03-01 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Esta pesquisa, de natureza qualitativa e base etnográfica, objetiva investigar a (co) construção de conhecimentos teórico-práticos na formação inicial de professores de língua inglesa no norte do Brasil a partir de uma perspectiva sociocultural, conforme proposta por, principalmente, Johnson (2009), Vieira-Abrahão (2012), Johnson e Golombek (2011, 2016) e Lantolf e Poehner (2014), respondendo à grande pergunta de pesquisa: Como se dá a (co) construção de conhecimentos teórico-práticos na formação inicial de professores de inglês em uma universidade pública no norte do Brasil?. Outras três questões orientaram o desenvolvimento desta investigação: (1) Quais conceitos cotidianos e científicos de língua, ensino e aprendizagem são apresentados pelos alunos-professores antes de cursarem a disciplina de Metodologia I?; (2) Quais conceitos científicos de língua, ensino e aprendizagem são introduzidos e de que modo são trabalhados nas disciplinas de Metodologia I e II e Estágio I e II?; (3) Quais conceitos cotidianos e científicos de língua, ensino e aprendizagem podem ser inferidos das práticas e dos discursos dos alunos-professores por ocasião dos estágios supervisionados e como esses conceitos se relacionam aos conceitos científicos introduzidos nas disciplinas de Metodologia I e II e Estágio I e II? . Os instrumentos de coleta e geração de dados utilizados foram gravações de aulas em áudio, diários da pesquisadora, questionários, sessões de feedback, entrevistas e relatórios de estágio. Os resultados mostraram que a maioria dos conceitos de língua, ensino e aprendizagem apresentados pelos futuros professores refere-se a concepções tradicionais. Os conceitos científicos de língua, ensino e aprendizagem introduzidos no curso de formação são oriundos dos paradigmas estrutural e comunicativo de ensino de línguas estrangeiras e foram diretamente transmitidos aos alunos-professores. No estágio supervisionado, os conceitos que sobressaíram possivelmente dizem respeito aos adquiridos por meio da aprendizagem de observação, com pouca influência dos conceitos introduzidos no curso de formação. / This ethnographic and qualitative research study aims at investigating the (co) construction of teacher knowledge in initial teacher education in the north of Brazil from a sociocultural perspective as proposed mainly by Johnson (2009),Vieira-Abrahão (2012), Johnson and Golombek (2011, 2016) and Lantolf and Poehner (2014), answering the major research question: How does the (co) construction of teacher knowledge occur in initial teacher education in the north of Brazil?. Three other questions oriented the development of this investigation: (1) What language, teaching and learning everyday and scientific concepts are held by teacher-learners before taking Metodologia I? (2) What language, teaching and learning scientific concepts are introduced and how are they worked in Metodologia I and II and Estágio I and II?; (3) What language, teaching and learning everyday and scientific concepts can be inferred from the teacher-learners’ practices and discourses at internship and how are these concepts related to the scientific ones introduced in Metodologia I and II and Estágio I and II? The instruments used to collect data were audio class recordings, researcher’s diaries, questionnaires, feedback sessions, interviews and internship reports. The results showed that most language, teaching and learning concepts held by the future English teachers refer to traditional conceptions. The language, teaching and learning scientific concepts introduced in the teacher education program came from structural and communicative paradigms in the second language teaching framework and were directly transmitted to teacher-learners. At internship the inferred concepts are likely to refer to the ones acquired through apprenticeship of observation, with little influence from the ones introduced in the teacher education program.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:26:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2004Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:34:53Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 quiroga_vv_me_assis.pdf: 300239 bytes, checksum: cceb3f0b8e6ae4317604197a6fc03774 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo verificar se o estudo autônomo é desenvolvido e como isso se realiza pelos estudantes de Espanhol como Língua Estrangeira, num curso que visa a formação de professores. A possibilidade desta pesquisa surgiu a partir de algumas inquietações relacionadas ao processo de ensino-aprendizagem de línguas estrageiras. Tal tipo de investigação foi possível através de leituras acerca da Pesquisa Heurística, que proporciona o auto-conhecimento do pesquisador e as implicações de suas características pessoais com o objeto investigado, conforme ensina Moustakas (1990). Utilizo, também, nesta pesquisa, a metodologia qualitativa. Os dados coletados estão a cargo de observações da sala de aula, respostas a questionários específicos e entrevistas áudio-gravadas. Todos estes dados convergem para uma análise interpretativista, com as intervenções necessárias para modificar certas situações, quando necessário. Este é o modelo indicado pela pesquisa-ação, pontuada por Thiollent (2003)... / The purpose of this research is to investigate whether students enrolled in a University Spanish Language and Literature Teacher Education Course engage themselves in self-study activities and, in positive case, how and in what extent they do it. The inicial adea for this work was raised in answer to my concern about foreign language learning and teaching questions and processes. The development of the investigation is related to Heuristic survey which brings the possibility of including the researcher's personal history as part of the study, as pointed out of Moustaka's (1990). The metodology is grounded on a qualitative approach. Data were gathered through classroom observation, questionaries and audio-recorded interviews, on an action-research basis (THIOLLENT, 2003)... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)