How is a veto justified? Within the discipline of International Relations, discourse analysis is gaining a higher status. However, there is a surprising lacuna in the literature as a discursive approach to the veto in the United Nations Security Council, is yet to be taken. This is unfortunate, given the Security Council’s prominence. The way in which the council members make meaning through their word choice has profound effects for politics in the international system. There is, nonetheless, a growing debate on the functioning of the council, and the veto-power is an important object of contestation. Motivated by current veto-restraining initiatives, this thesis performs a discourse analysis on the 19 cast vetoes between 2005-2016. The actors of relevance are the permanent Security Council members China, Russia, and the US, and the study demonstrates how the concepts of sovereignty, intervention and legitimacy are employed in the discursive construction of the legitimate veto. The thesis further argues that there are patterns and reoccurring themes in the way meaning is created that can be summarized into a contra-discourse —a veto-discourse —contrasting the dominating discourse within the Security Council.

! The scope of this work is to critically assess the phenomenon of American interventions from the beginning of the post-Cold War era to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Departing from the analysis of the question of why an argument liable to disproof was chosen for legitimizing on legal grounds the 2003 invasion of Iraq, I proceed to the analysis of the relation between legitimizing discourse employed by the American administration domestically, and the one employed in the context of international institutions. The first one is concluded to take precedence over the second - at least for what concerns the timeframe taken into consideration in this work. I then proceed to an analysis of the evolution of domestic legitimizing discourse from 1991 to 2003, providing a dialectic evolutionary model. Finally, competing theoretical interpretations of the phenomenon are tested against the findings of the research.

This thesis takes its onset in a growing debate about globalization and its possible consequences for the Weberian-state monopoly on the use of force. It concerns the discursive legitimizing and construction of Swedish military peace operations. It studies how the official, Governmental discourse is structured, which arguments are used and how these in turn motivate and legitimize operations. Theoretically it is situated within a poststructuralist understanding but drawing on wider international relations theories to relate the empirical findings to existing research. Methodologically it uses a discourse analytical framework developed by Lene Hansen, supplemented with analytical concepts stemming from the work of Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe. Empirically the thesis analyses Governmental Bills, a Governmental Communication and one op-ed written by the minister of Defence in regards of peace operations. The empirical analysis show that the official Swedish discourse of peace operations is structured by three basic discourses; internationalism, stateism and humanitarianism. These are analysed and interpreted in the light of different IR theoretical understandings. The thesis argues that the basic discourses are involved in a reciprocal process in which the state legitimizes peace operations and reproduces the idea of states and foremost the notion of an international state system. The humanitarian factor is less elaborated on in the material, which can be interpreted in different ways, one being that the humanitarian situation is not so important in the eyes of states, another that it is regarded as so self-evident that the situation of flesh and blood individuals is the legitimating reason for Swedish engagement in peace operations that it does not need to be said. The thesis ends with a critical discussion where its findings are related both to the globalization debate and critical peace operations literature.

À travers une enquête qualitative auprès de lecteurs et lectrices de romans, cette thèse se propose d’interroger l’influence de la position et de la trajectoire sociales des publics sur leurs choix de lecture ainsi que sur leurs pratiques de recours à la prescription littéraire, à l’ère numérique.Face à une offre éditoriale pléthorique, lecteurs et lectrices se trouvent en effet en situation d’incertitude quant à la qualité des œuvres littéraires. Il s’agit alors d’interroger les influences respectives et cumulées d’instances de prescription et de recommandation — en tant qu’elles contribuent à produire de la valeur — telles que la prescription scolaire, la prescription médiatique, les prix littéraires, les professionnels du livre ou encore les groupes de pairs. L’intérêt que portent les lecteurs interrogés aux discours produits par ces instances de légitimation est mis en relation avec leur position sociale ainsi que leur trajectoire — en mettant l’accent sur le contexte dans lequel leur goût et leur pratique se sont développés, et sur les modalités de la pratique. Ce faisant, ce travail de recherche — fondé sur 36 entretiens semi-directifs et 457 questionnaires menés auprès de lecteurs parisiens et actifs — a pour objectifs d’apporter via l’angle du choix une meilleure compréhension des pratiques de lecture ainsi que des usages de la prescription littéraire. / This thesis looks at participants’ interests in the discourses of legitimizing bodies, depending on their social class backgrounds and locations, in the digital era. Confronted to an overabundant offer, this study examines participants’ interests in the discourses of legitimizing bodies, depending on their social class backgrounds and locations. In a context where readers often remain unsure about the quality of literary works, this thesis looks at the wide variety of institutions/intermediaries that contribute to the production of value such as school, media, literary awards, booksellers, publishers and peer groups. The aims of this research work are to provide a better understanding of reading practices and of the uses of literary prescription. Methodologically, this study is drawn from 457 questionnaires and 36 interviews of participant 18-65 aged and based around Paris who read a book in the last 12 months.The study finds that the consumption of book recommendations depends on social class location. Although more dependent on recommendations to reduce the uncertainty of the quality of books, occasional readers – most often working and middle class participants – consume less book recommendations. To the contrary, the results suggests that the participants with a higher cultural capital i.e. those who are familiar with the wide variety of books available, tend to consume more recommendations, albeit with detachment.

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’étudier le processus social de légitimation des produits financiers en prenant comme exemple le développement des Exchange Traded Funds (ETF) en France. En dépit de la complexification de leur « dispositif de calcul » les encours des ETF ont connu une progression rapide. L'essor de ces innovations s'explique par l'effort de légitimation entrepris par les promoteurs. Contrairement à l'approche néo-institutionnaliste qui se focalise sur la dimension cognitive, nous partons des interdépendances pour comprendre le processus social de légitimation. Nous étudions ce processus en combinant une enquête ethnographique fondée sur des entretiens semi-directifs et des observations non-participantes avec une analyse du réseau social d'échange d'information entre les marketeurs, les traders, les journalistes, les investisseurs et les académiques. Nous montrons qu'il existe une « niche sociale » où des acteurs-promoteurs coopèrent entre eux. Ils relaient, auprès des diffuseurs d'information que sont les journalistes, un discours fondé sur les dimensions positives de leur innovation. Ils s'appuient, pour cela, sur le « contrôle social » qu'ils exercent sur la presse économique. Enfin, ces promoteurs s'associent à l'institut de recherche en finance Edhec-Risk afin de fonder la légitimité de leurs produits sur le statut académique de ce partenaire. / The focus of this thesis is to study the social process of legitimizing financial products, focusing primarily on Exchange Traded Funds (ETFs) in France. Despite the complex nature of their « calculative device », ETFs have grown rapidly. This can be explained through promoters’ legitimizing efforts. Unlike neo-institutional theory which focuses on the cognitive dimension, this will emphasize the role of interdependencies and relationships in studying legitimizing efforts. This study is based on ethnographic research with semi-structured interviews and non-participant observations during conferences. We combine this qualitative research method with quantitative analysis of the network of information exchanged between marketers, traders, journalists, investors, regulators and academics. We evidence the existence of a « social niche » where competitors cooperate. The promoters exert social control on financial journalists to relay the positive aspects of their financial products. They also collaborate with EDHEC-Risk Institute to benefit from its academic status and gain more legitimacy.

Text in Afrikaans / Die (NG) kerk in Suid-Afrika bevind haar aan die begin van 'n nuwe millennium in 'n oorgangstydperk. Die NG Kerk se aandeel aan die sonde van apartheid hou verband met haar legitimering van die apartheidsideologie. Ten opsigte van laasgenoemde het sy 'n apartheidsteologie verkondig, ten spyte van die ernstige vermanings wat ook vanuit eie geledere gemaak is. Die lot van noodlydendes in die land hou grootliks verband met die gevolge van apartheid. Hierdie studie wys op die noodsaaklikheid dat die kerk in die konteks van noodlydendes weer haar diakonale rol moet nastreef. Die studie ondersoek die transformasiekrag van die metafoor as integrerende deel van die denk- en taalsisteem van die mens. Die bewuswees van teenstellings tussen die toegepaste en nie-toegepaste onderskeidinge binne die betekenis van die gebruikte woord is verantwoordelik vir die spanning wat daar in die metaforiese woordgebruik bestaan. Laasgenoemde bied die metafoor 'n dinamiese krag. Die prediker kan as kreatiewe metafoorskepper die metafoor in prediking aanwend. Sodoende kan gelowiges geaktiveer word om voetewassers te word en kan die diakonale kerk profetieses die bevryding van nood verkondig. Die (NG) kerk in Suid-Afrika bevind haar aan die begin van 'n nuwe millennium in 'n oorgangstydperk. Die NG Kerk se aandeel aan die sonde van apartheid hou verband met haar legitimering van die apartheidsideologie. Ten opsigte van laasgenoemde het sy 'n apartheidsteologie verkondig, ten spyte van die ernstige vermanings wat ook vanuit eie geledere gemaak is. Die lot van noodlydendes in die land hou grootliks verband met die gevolge van apartheid. Hierdie studie wys op die noodsaaklikheid dat die kerk in die konteks van noodlydendes weer haar diakonale rol moet nastreef. Die studie ondersoek die transformasiekrag van die metafoor as integrerende deel van die denk- en taalsisteem van die mens. Die bewuswees van teenstellings tussen die toegepaste en nie-toegepaste onderskeidinge binne die betekenis van die gebruikte woord is verantwoordelik vir die spanning wat daar in die metaforiese woordgebruik bestaan. Laasgenoemde bied die metafoor 'n dinamiese krag. Die prediker kan as kreatiewe metafoorskepper die metafoor in prediking aanwend. Sodoende kan gelowiges geaktiveer word om voetewassers te word en kan die diakonale kerk profetieses die bevryding van nood verkondig. / At the beginning of the new millennium, the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa finds itself in a transitional period. The part the Dutch Reformed Church played in the sin of apartheid, can be directly ascribed to the legitimizing of the apartheid ideology. With reference to the above, the church preached an apartheid theology, in spite of serious warnings from within its own ranks. The misery of the 'suffering humanity' in our country is a direct result of apartheid. This study highlights the immense importance resting upon the Dutch Reformed Church to once again fulfil its diaconal role with reference to those who suffer. This study investigates the transformation power of the metaphor as integral part of the cognitive- and language systems of the human being. The awareness of the implied contradictions between the applied and non-applied parts in the meaning of the word creates a tension in metaphorical speech. The latter endows the metaphor with a dynamic power. The preacher may then apply creative metaphors in the sermon. He is therefore a creator of the metaphor. The effective use of the metaphor in preaching will enable him to empower his audience to be servants like Jesus. The effective use of metaphors in preaching will help to activate believers and will assist the diaconal church in relaying its prophetic message of salvation to those who suffer. Through the active conduct and unity of the church, those who suffer experience the salvation of the living Christ. This study implies that the preacher should approach the text from his own experience, combined with an existentional knowledge of the needs of the people in need, to the text. The study highlights the creative role of the preacher as creator of the metaphor, and the activation of believers in the context of those who suffer, so that the church may fulfill its diaconal role. / Practical Theology / D.Th. (Practical theology)

Text in Afrikaans / Die (NG) kerk in Suid-Afrika bevind haar aan die begin van 'n nuwe millennium in 'n oorgangstydperk. Die NG Kerk se aandeel aan die sonde van apartheid hou verband met haar legitimering van die apartheidsideologie. Ten opsigte van laasgenoemde het sy 'n apartheidsteologie verkondig, ten spyte van die ernstige vermanings wat ook vanuit eie geledere gemaak is. Die lot van noodlydendes in die land hou grootliks verband met die gevolge van apartheid. Hierdie studie wys op die noodsaaklikheid dat die kerk in die konteks van noodlydendes weer haar diakonale rol moet nastreef. Die studie ondersoek die transformasiekrag van die metafoor as integrerende deel van die denk- en taalsisteem van die mens. Die bewuswees van teenstellings tussen die toegepaste en nie-toegepaste onderskeidinge binne die betekenis van die gebruikte woord is verantwoordelik vir die spanning wat daar in die metaforiese woordgebruik bestaan. Laasgenoemde bied die metafoor 'n dinamiese krag. Die prediker kan as kreatiewe metafoorskepper die metafoor in prediking aanwend. Sodoende kan gelowiges geaktiveer word om voetewassers te word en kan die diakonale kerk profetieses die bevryding van nood verkondig. Die (NG) kerk in Suid-Afrika bevind haar aan die begin van 'n nuwe millennium in 'n oorgangstydperk. Die NG Kerk se aandeel aan die sonde van apartheid hou verband met haar legitimering van die apartheidsideologie. Ten opsigte van laasgenoemde het sy 'n apartheidsteologie verkondig, ten spyte van die ernstige vermanings wat ook vanuit eie geledere gemaak is. Die lot van noodlydendes in die land hou grootliks verband met die gevolge van apartheid. Hierdie studie wys op die noodsaaklikheid dat die kerk in die konteks van noodlydendes weer haar diakonale rol moet nastreef. Die studie ondersoek die transformasiekrag van die metafoor as integrerende deel van die denk- en taalsisteem van die mens. Die bewuswees van teenstellings tussen die toegepaste en nie-toegepaste onderskeidinge binne die betekenis van die gebruikte woord is verantwoordelik vir die spanning wat daar in die metaforiese woordgebruik bestaan. Laasgenoemde bied die metafoor 'n dinamiese krag. Die prediker kan as kreatiewe metafoorskepper die metafoor in prediking aanwend. Sodoende kan gelowiges geaktiveer word om voetewassers te word en kan die diakonale kerk profetieses die bevryding van nood verkondig. / At the beginning of the new millennium, the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa finds itself in a transitional period. The part the Dutch Reformed Church played in the sin of apartheid, can be directly ascribed to the legitimizing of the apartheid ideology. With reference to the above, the church preached an apartheid theology, in spite of serious warnings from within its own ranks. The misery of the 'suffering humanity' in our country is a direct result of apartheid. This study highlights the immense importance resting upon the Dutch Reformed Church to once again fulfil its diaconal role with reference to those who suffer. This study investigates the transformation power of the metaphor as integral part of the cognitive- and language systems of the human being. The awareness of the implied contradictions between the applied and non-applied parts in the meaning of the word creates a tension in metaphorical speech. The latter endows the metaphor with a dynamic power. The preacher may then apply creative metaphors in the sermon. He is therefore a creator of the metaphor. The effective use of the metaphor in preaching will enable him to empower his audience to be servants like Jesus. The effective use of metaphors in preaching will help to activate believers and will assist the diaconal church in relaying its prophetic message of salvation to those who suffer. Through the active conduct and unity of the church, those who suffer experience the salvation of the living Christ. This study implies that the preacher should approach the text from his own experience, combined with an existentional knowledge of the needs of the people in need, to the text. The study highlights the creative role of the preacher as creator of the metaphor, and the activation of believers in the context of those who suffer, so that the church may fulfill its diaconal role. / Philosophy, Practical and Systematic Theology / D.Th. (Practical theology)

Many scholars have discussed the sociopolitical consequences of belief in karma but few have investigated such relationships quantitatively. This study aims to establish empirical patterns concerning the connection between karmic beliefs and attitudes related to (i) political ideology, (ii) ableism, and (iii) views on the death penalty. The study’s theoretical framework is based on a Weberian approach to the study of beliefs (viewing beliefs as having attitudinal implications) and the theory of motivated social cognition. It uses original survey data from an MTurk sample of 330 Indians, which is analyzed through a series of regression models. When using demographic variables as controls, karmic beliefs are shown to correlate significantly (p<0.001) with three conservative dispositions (status quo conservatism, laissez-faire conservatism, authoritarianism); political approval of the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party; ideological self-placement; ableist attitudes, and with disapproval of the death penalty. Karmic beliefs are also shown to correlate significantly with social class, and with right-wing views across both social classes and castes. Given these findings, I argue that karmic beliefs are likely to affect various political outcomes in India via their role in shaping the moral and political frameworks of the Indian population.

[pt] Quando se visualiza a profusão de signos gráficos de empresas, atualmente expostos no meio social, se manifestam várias indagações, dentre as quais uma é fundamental: o que possibilita a estas imagens gráficas deterem tamanha força, capaz de permitir o seu reconhecimento como representante da empresa a que pertence, ou como sinal de indicação da marca de produtos a que se devota o consumo? O propósito deste trabalho de pesquisa é apresentar o entendimento de como o signo gráfico empresarial atinge essa força, que aqui se entende por eficiência. Tal como efetuamos nossa análise do fenômeno, a eficiência do signo gráfico empresarial não pode ser compreendida a partir das características técnicas de sua configuração, mas pela construção cultural de um campo simbólico de produção - o campo do design. Esse fenômeno somente foi possível porque ocorreram transformações sociais de grande proporção, que aprofundaram sobremaneira a ruptura inicial de instauração da Idade Moderna. Uma delas foi a alteração do modelo de visualidade no século XIX, a qual possibilitou ao campo do design efetivar seus princípios legítimos de produção de imagens gráficas, e assim justificar, na sociedade, o domínio de sua fabricação. Outra alteração consistiu na mudança do modelo de satisfação subjetiva, que forneceu as bases do insaciável consumo moderno. Essa mudança ofereceu oportunidade para que se instituíssem a importância das marcas - imagens projetadas a partir de valores atribuídos aos empreendimentos - e a força de seus signos gráficos. Para a articulação dessas duas alterações com a análise da eficiência do signo gráfico, foram empregados os seguintes autores: Jonathan Crary e Colin Campbell, que contribuíram respectivamente com indicações relevantes das alterações que permitiram aos indivíduos das sociedades modernas, visualizar e consumir de maneira autônoma. Na análise do funcionamento do campo do design, utilizou-se um autor fundamental, Pierre Bourdieu, que explicita, por meio de sua teoria de produção dos campos simbólicos, a maneira pela qual um bem simbólico - por exemplo, uma imagem gráfica - alcança o reconhecimento como legítimo. A partir dessa produção simbólica do campo, é possível compreender que a eficiência do signo gráfico empresarial depende de sua legitimação, levada a efeito de maneira precisa entre os diversos agentes e instituições das instâncias desse campo autônomo do design, em luta constante por legitimidade na hierarquia social. / [en] When one visualizes the profusion of company graphic signs currently displayed in the social area, several questions arise, but nevertheless one is basic: what enables these graphic images to have so much strength which allows them to be recognized as representative of the companies to which they belong or as sign indicative of the trademarks of products whose consumption is desired? The purpose of this research work is to present the understanding of how the company graphic sign attains this strength, which in this work is understood as efficiency. As we perform our analysis of the phenomenon, the efficiency of the company graphic sign cannot be comprehended based on the technical characteristics of its configuration, but rather as the cultural construction of a symbolic field of production – the design field. This phenomenon was possible only because large-scale social transformations took place which greatly deepened the initial breakthrough of the establishment of the Modern Age. One of these was the change in the model for visualizing in the 19th century which enabled the design field to achieve its legitimate principles of graphic image production and thus justify to society the mastery of their production. Another change involved the shift in the model of subjective satisfaction, which furnished the bases for modern insatiable consumption. This change offered the opportunity for instituting the importance of trademarks – images projected based on values attributed to the undertakings – and the strength of their graphic signs. For the articulation of these two changes with the analysis of the graphic sign´s efficiency, the following authors were utilized: Jonathan Crary and Colin Campbell, who contributed respectively with relevant indications of these changes which allowed individuals in modern societies to visualize and consume in an independent way. In the analysis of the design field´s functioning, a fundamental author was utilized: Pierre Bourdieu, who makes explicit, by means of his theory of symbolic field production, the way in which a symbolic asset – for example, a graphic image – achieves recognition as legitimate. Based on this symbolic field production, it is possible to comprehend that the efficiency of the company graphic sign depends on its legitimizing, carried out in a precise way among the various agents and institutions on the levels of this independent field of design, in a constant struggle for legitimacy in the social hierarchy. / [fr] Quand on visualise la profusion des signes graphiques des entreprises actuellement exposés dans la société, plusieurs indagations se manifestent, cependant, une nous semble fondamentale: qu’est-ce que possibilite à ces images graphiques d’avoir telle force qui permet que l’on les reconaisse comme représentant de l’entreprise à laquelle elles appartiennent ou même comme indication de la marque des produits de consommation? L’objectif de ce travail est de comprendre comment le signe graphique d’une entreprise gagne cette force, qui dans ce travail on appelera efficacité. Selon la façon dont nous avons effectué notre analyse de ce phénomène, l’efficacité du signe graphique d’une entreprise ne peut pas être comprise à partir des caractéristiques techniques de sa configuration, mais à partir de la construction culturelle d’un champ symbolique de production – le champ du design. Cela a été possible grâce aux grandes transformations sociales qui ont aprofondi la rupture iniciale d’instauration de l’âge moderne. Une de ces transformations fût le changement de modèle de visualité au XIXème siècle qui a possibilité au champ du design d’effectuer ses príncipes légitimes de production des images graphiques et ainsi de justifier dans la société le domaine de sa fabrication. Une autre tranformation fût le changement de modèle de satisfaction subjective qui a donné les bases de la consommation exagérée de la modernité. Ce changement offrit l’opportunité de l’institution et de l’importance des marques – images projetées à partir des valeurs attribuées aux entreprises – et la force de leurs signes graphiques. Pour articuler ces deux changements deux auteurs ont été utilisés: Jonathan Crary et Colin Campbell qui ont fourni des indications relevantes à propos de ces changements qui permirent aux individus des sociétés modernes de visualiser et de consommer de manière autonome. Dans l’analyse du fonctionnement du champ du design, on a utilisé un auteur fondamental, Pierre Bourdieu qui explicite à travers sa théorie du champ de production symbolique, la façon dont un bien symbolique, une image graphique par exemple, obtient la reconnaissance comme légitime. À partir de cette production symbolique du champ, il est possible de comprendre que l’efficacité du signe graphique d’une entreprise dépend de sa propre légitimation parmi plusieurs agents et institutions de ce champ autonome du design, en lutte pour la légitimation dans l’hiérarchie sociale.