This work deals with the assignment of grammatical gender of nouns in Italian. Work will try to fully describe the category of grammatical gender in Italian with the comparative excursion to these issues in Czech and establish rules for the attribution of new or borrowed words. The part of this work is also analysis of selected words from the linguistic corpus and examination of validity of the rules of assignment and determination of the developmental trends in field of gender assignment.

Levanta os estrangeirismos contidos na revista semanal japonesa Shukan Asahi (nº 4825, de 6/7/2007); destaca os estrangeirismos de origem na língua inglesa anglicismos; estuda de modo contextualizado o modo como são utilizados os anglicismos selecionados; levanta características de utilização na língua japonesa: diferença ou não quanto a classe morfológica e carga semântica em relação à língua de origem, modo de adaptação dentro da língua receptora. Discorre sobre a relação da abundância de anglicismos em materiais impressos em língua japonesa e o ensino/aprendizagem de vocábulos na língua japonesa enquanto língua estrangeira. Discorre sobre as razões intrínsecas que levam o indivíduo a utilizar palavras de outras línguas; sobre a relação da língua inglesa com as demais línguas. / Pick up the loanwords from inside the Japanese weekly magazine Shukan Asahi (No. 4825 of 06/07/2007); highlights loanwords from English language anglicism; study through a contextualized way the use of those selected anglicisms; raises anglicisms features of using in the Japanese language: morphological and semantic differences the word is used in the language of origin, methods of adjustment in the receiving language. Discourses the relationship between the abundance of anglicisms in Japanese language printed materials and the teaching/learning words in Japanese as a foreign language. Discuss the intrinsic reason that made the individual motivates to use words from other languages; the relationship among English language and other languages.

ANALYSE DIACHRONIQUE DU TRÉSOR DE LA LANGUE FRANÇAISEET DE L’OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY :LE TRAITEMENT DES EMPRUNTSRÉSUMÉIl n’est pas de langue dont le lexique ne s’enrichisse au gré des emprunts, qui permettent d’accroître et de renouveler le fonds lexical au fur et à mesure que se développent les relations entre les pays et entre leurs cultures. Les langues anglaise et française, en raison de leur rayonnement sur tous les continents, ont acquis un contingent très important de mots venus d’ailleurs, qu’elles se sont en outre souvent partagé. En effet, du fait de leur proximité géographique et d’une histoire commune d’une grande richesse, l’anglais et le français ont été amenés à s’interpénétrer pendant plus de dix siècles. Nous avons voulu, dans cette étude, montrer l’impact des emprunts sur les deux langues, et analyser la façon dont ils sont traités dans les dictionnaires les plus extensifs qui soient de part et d’autre de la Manche : le Trésor de la Langue Française et l’Oxford English Dictionary.Dans une première partie, nous étudions la constitution des lexiques anglais et français au fil du temps en fonction des apports étrangers, avant de définir la notion même d’emprunt et d’en montrer la complexité. Enfin, nous présentons le corpus sur lequel repose ce travail.La seconde partie est consacrée à la présentation du Trésor de la Langue Française et de l’Oxford English Dictionary. Après avoir retracé l’histoire des dictionnaires de langue et la genèse de ces deux dictionnaires, leurs caractéristiques sont mises en évidence et leur constitution finement analysée, tant sur le plan macrostructurel que sur le plan microstructurel. Nous avons également montré les atouts que représente leur informatisation.La dernière partie s’arrête plus précisément sur le traitement des emprunts en fonction de leur type dans ces ouvrages et sur les indications données à leur sujet, avant de faire porter l’accent sur les particularités propres au traitement des emprunts et sur les difficultés inhérentes à la description lexicographique des mots venus d’ailleurs. / THE TRÉSOR DE LA LANGUE FRANÇAISE ANDTHE OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY :A DIACHRONICAL ANALYSIS OF LOAN-WORDSABSTRACTThere is no language that does not expand thanks to loan-words : they permit the lexical stock to get richer and refreshed as are developed the relationships between cultures and countries. English and French languages, since they have been spreading over all continents, have acquired a lot of words from other horizons, that, moreover, they often shared. Actually, we can but notice that their geographic proximity and the richness of their history have aroused an important interpenetration during more than ten centuries. That is why we wanted to show, in this study, the impact of loan-words on both languages, and to analyse the way the most extensive dictionaries on either side of the Channel — the Trésor de la Langue Française and the Oxford English Dictionary — dealt with them.In the first part of this work, we study how French and English lexicons were built up over the course of time according to foreign contributions, and we define the very notion of loan-word in order to show how complex it is. Afterwards, we present the corpus on which rests this study.The second part is dedicated to an exhaustive presentation of the Trésor de la Langue Française and of the Oxford English Dictionary. After a recounting of language dictionaries and of the creation of those two dictionaries, their main features are highlighted and their constitution accurately examined, as well macrostructurally as microstructurally. We also point out the advantages of their informatisation.In the last part, we observe more precisely how the different types of loan-words are reported and what kind of indications are given about them. Then, we point out the distinctive characteristics of the way loan-words are dealt with and the lexicographical difficulties in describing words from elsewhere.

No presente estudo, são investigados os processos fonológicos e morfológicos na adapta ção/nativização de itens lexicais, incorporados no século XX, provenientes de outras línguas (sobretudo do espanhol, holandês, inglês e português) para o papiamentu moderno, língua falada nas ilhas de Aruba, Bonaire e Curaçao por mais de 200 mil pessoas. A partir do corpus formado pela seleção de aproximadamente mil palavras de nativização recente, este trabalho limitou-se aos domínios lexicais do Esporte, Política, Economia, Tecnologia e Desenvolvimento. A escolha teve por objetivo limitar os dados obtidos para apenas itens de empréstimos recentes, ou seja, constituir um corpus com palavras incorporadas a partir do século XX em diante. O material utilizado para pesquisa foi retirado de fontes como manuais e livros de esporte (DANIELS, 1986; PERSAUD, 1992; COSTER, 2010); guias e livros sobre política e economia (HOYER, 1944; SINDIKATONAN, 1985; HEILIGERSHALABI, 1988; KOMERSIO, 1996); jornal impresso Èxtra (2011), produzido e vendido em Curaçao; dicionário bilíngue papiamentu/inglês (RATZLAFF-HENRIQUEZ, 2008). A análise de itens lexicais de adaptação recente buscou avaliar se os empréstimos são nativizados segundo o padrão linguístico do papiamentu ou se há uma gramática especial para estas palavras (PARADIS & LABEL, 1994; PARADIS, 1996; KENSTOWICZ, 2001; KENSTOWICZ & SUCHATO, 2004) e também buscou identicar os padrões fonológicos e morfológicos existentes na adaptação. Para realizar tais propósitos, os itens lexicais coletados das fontes escritas foram gravados com pelo menos dois falantes nativos (para cada palavra). Posteriormente, deu-se início ao processo de análise de dados que foi baseado em padrões de correspondência de som entre palavras do papiamentu e palavras de empréstimo de outras línguas. Foram coletados 930 itens relativos ao empréstimo recente. Desse número total, pôde-se traçar, em 892 palavras, uma única língua fonte, enquanto que 38 itens ou são palavras resultantes do processo de hibridismo, em que o item lexical é formado por palavras fontes de duas ou mais línguas ou possuem mais de um étimo possível. Ao analisar os números obtidos pelo espanhol e português em todos os campos lexicais, constata-se que tais línguas são as que mais participam no processo de empréstimo de itens lexicais para o papiamentu. Esse predomínio sinaliza que o papiamentu moderno ainda é inuenciado pelas línguas que formaram o seu superstrato, embora não se possa ignorar a presença de um número signicativo de itens de étimo holandês e inglês na formação de seu vocabulário recente. Tendo como embasamento teórico a Teoria de Restrições e Estratégias de Reparo (TCRS), proposta por Paradis (1988) e a Teoria da Similaridade Perceptual (STERIADE, 2002; FLEISCHHACKER, 2001, 2002; WALKER 2003), o estudo conrmou que a informação segmental tende a ser maximamente preservada. O apagamento não foi o recurso mais usado, ocorrendo apenas quando era necessário evitar a violação de uma restrição na L1. Além disso, os falantes tendem a maximizar a similaridade perceptual entre a forma adaptada e o input estrangeiro nos processos de empréstimo. / This study investigates the phonological and morphological processes involved in the adaptation/ nativization of lexical items from other languages (especially Spanish, Dutch, English, and Portuguese) incorporated during the twentieth century into modern Papiamentu, a language spoken on the islands of Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao by over 200 thousand people. Based on a corpus made up of a selection of approximately a thousand recently nativized words, the study limits itself to the lexical domains of Sport, Politics, Economics, Technology, and Development. The choice aimed to limit data obtained to only items of recent loans, that is, the aim was to constitute a corpus of words incorporated from the twentieth century onwards. The material used for the study was taken from sources such as sports manuals and books (DANIELS, 1986; PERSAUD, 1992; COSTER, 2010); guides and books on politics and economics (HOYER, 1944; SINDIKATONAN, 1985; HEILIGERSHALABI, 1988; KOMERSIO, 1996); the newspaper Èxtra (2011), produced and sold in Cura çao; and a Papiamentu/English bilingual dictionary (RATZLAFF-HENRIQUEZ, 2008). The analysis of recently adapted lexical items seeks to evaluate whether the loanwords studied were nativized according to the linguistic patterns of Papiamentu, or if there is a special grammar for these words. (PARADIS & LABEL, 1994; PARADIS, 1996; KENSTOWICZ, 2001; KENSTOWICZ & SUCHATO, 2004) and it also seeks to identify the existing phonological and morphological patterns in the adaptation. In order to achieve these aims, the lexical items collected from the written sources were recorded by at least two native speakers (for each word). Then, a process of data analysis was initiated, based on patterns of sound correspondence between Papiamentu words and loanwords from other languages. A total of 930 items were collected in relation to recent loans. Of these, a single language source can be traced in 892 words, while 38 items are either words formed by hybridism, in which the lexical item is formed by source words from two or more languages, or words with more than one possible etymon. In the analysis of the numbers obtained relating to Spanish and Portuguese in all the lexical elds, it can be seen that these two languages are the ones with the largest part in the process of loaning of lexical items to Papiamentu. This predominance indicates that modern Papiamentu continues to be inuenced by the languages that framed its superstratum, although the presence in recent Papiamentu vocabulary of a signicant number of items with Dutch and English etymons should also not be ignored. Taking as a theoretical framework the Theory of Constraints and Repair Strategies (TCRS), proposed by Paradis (1988) and the Theory of Perceptual Similarity (STERIADE, 2002; FLEISCHHACKER, 2001, 2002; WALKER 2003), this study attests that segmental information tends to be maximally preserved. Deletion was not the most commonly used resource, apparently occurring only when there was a need to avoid violation of a restriction in the L1. Additionally, speakers tend to maximize the perceptual similarity between the adapted from and the foreign input in the loan processes.

This is a study of the Old Norse (hereafter abbreviated to ON) setr/sætr and ærgi place-names in areas of Scandinavian settlement in Scotland. The elements setr/sætr and ærgi all have a general meaning of a place for summer grazing in the hills, referred to in Scotland as a shieling. However, the related terms setr and sætr, are employed as shielings names in Norway and are indistinguishable from each other in Britain. It is only in areas of Scandinavian settlement in Britain and the Faroes that ærgi is found to signify a shieling site. The element ærgi was adopted as a loanword from either, the Scottish Gaelic àirigh or Irish áirge, both of which can also have the meaning of a shieling. What is unusual about this adoption is it is rare for a more prestigious speech community (ON in this instance) to adopt a word from, what is believed to have been, a less prestigious language at the time (Gaelic). Various scholars have looked at this question, but none have adequately explained the reason for the adoption. Much of the previous research has relied on comparisons of local farming systems that were recorded many centuries after the Viking Age. Farming techniques from the fifteenth to twentieth century are unlikely to adequately represent the agricultural situation in the Viking Age due to different social imperatives. The overall question I want to answer in this thesis, is why Scandinavian settlers in Scotland adopted ærgi, when they already had corresponding ON terms for a shieling. The distribution of ON settlement names is one of the main pieces of evidence to prove Scandinavian settlement in Scotland during this period. This is especially true of secondary settlements, such as shielings, which rarely feature in early documentation. The language shift to either Gaelic or Scots-English is likely to have led to the loss of many ON place-names, but will also have fossilised some names in the landscape. The location of these settlement names can give an understanding of how Scandinavian settlers utilised the landscape and highlight differences in the use of different shieling names. This thesis is interdisciplinary in nature, but one based on cultural and historical geography. The first element of the study is to understand why shielings developed in Scandinavian society and if there are identifiable environmental factors behind their location. Studies in Norway suggest shielings developed as a response to environmental constraints to agriculture and social pressures to produce a surplus. A locational study of shielings in areas that were the likely origin of Viking settlers in Norway, highlighted seven key locations for shielings. These locational factors were then compared to setr/sætr-names in Scotland. The locations were broadly similar to Norwegian shielings, however, Scottish setr/sætr-names were more likely to be situated in slightly more fertile locations than Norwegian examples studied. A comparison of Scottish setr/sætr-names with ærgi-names also revealed the latter to be more likely found on even richer grazing land. The conclusion being, setr/sætr had a more general meaning of a place for summer grazing, whereas, ærgi was specifically linked to richer soils and richer grazing land. This link may relate to an intensive dairy economy, something which is known from contemporary documentary sources from the Gaelic world, but has not been proven in pre-Viking Age Norway.

No presente estudo, são investigados os processos fonológicos e morfológicos na adapta ção/nativização de itens lexicais, incorporados no século XX, provenientes de outras línguas (sobretudo do espanhol, holandês, inglês e português) para o papiamentu moderno, língua falada nas ilhas de Aruba, Bonaire e Curaçao por mais de 200 mil pessoas. A partir do corpus formado pela seleção de aproximadamente mil palavras de nativização recente, este trabalho limitou-se aos domínios lexicais do Esporte, Política, Economia, Tecnologia e Desenvolvimento. A escolha teve por objetivo limitar os dados obtidos para apenas itens de empréstimos recentes, ou seja, constituir um corpus com palavras incorporadas a partir do século XX em diante. O material utilizado para pesquisa foi retirado de fontes como manuais e livros de esporte (DANIELS, 1986; PERSAUD, 1992; COSTER, 2010); guias e livros sobre política e economia (HOYER, 1944; SINDIKATONAN, 1985; HEILIGERSHALABI, 1988; KOMERSIO, 1996); jornal impresso Èxtra (2011), produzido e vendido em Curaçao; dicionário bilíngue papiamentu/inglês (RATZLAFF-HENRIQUEZ, 2008). A análise de itens lexicais de adaptação recente buscou avaliar se os empréstimos são nativizados segundo o padrão linguístico do papiamentu ou se há uma gramática especial para estas palavras (PARADIS & LABEL, 1994; PARADIS, 1996; KENSTOWICZ, 2001; KENSTOWICZ & SUCHATO, 2004) e também buscou identicar os padrões fonológicos e morfológicos existentes na adaptação. Para realizar tais propósitos, os itens lexicais coletados das fontes escritas foram gravados com pelo menos dois falantes nativos (para cada palavra). Posteriormente, deu-se início ao processo de análise de dados que foi baseado em padrões de correspondência de som entre palavras do papiamentu e palavras de empréstimo de outras línguas. Foram coletados 930 itens relativos ao empréstimo recente. Desse número total, pôde-se traçar, em 892 palavras, uma única língua fonte, enquanto que 38 itens ou são palavras resultantes do processo de hibridismo, em que o item lexical é formado por palavras fontes de duas ou mais línguas ou possuem mais de um étimo possível. Ao analisar os números obtidos pelo espanhol e português em todos os campos lexicais, constata-se que tais línguas são as que mais participam no processo de empréstimo de itens lexicais para o papiamentu. Esse predomínio sinaliza que o papiamentu moderno ainda é inuenciado pelas línguas que formaram o seu superstrato, embora não se possa ignorar a presença de um número signicativo de itens de étimo holandês e inglês na formação de seu vocabulário recente. Tendo como embasamento teórico a Teoria de Restrições e Estratégias de Reparo (TCRS), proposta por Paradis (1988) e a Teoria da Similaridade Perceptual (STERIADE, 2002; FLEISCHHACKER, 2001, 2002; WALKER 2003), o estudo conrmou que a informação segmental tende a ser maximamente preservada. O apagamento não foi o recurso mais usado, ocorrendo apenas quando era necessário evitar a violação de uma restrição na L1. Além disso, os falantes tendem a maximizar a similaridade perceptual entre a forma adaptada e o input estrangeiro nos processos de empréstimo. / This study investigates the phonological and morphological processes involved in the adaptation/ nativization of lexical items from other languages (especially Spanish, Dutch, English, and Portuguese) incorporated during the twentieth century into modern Papiamentu, a language spoken on the islands of Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao by over 200 thousand people. Based on a corpus made up of a selection of approximately a thousand recently nativized words, the study limits itself to the lexical domains of Sport, Politics, Economics, Technology, and Development. The choice aimed to limit data obtained to only items of recent loans, that is, the aim was to constitute a corpus of words incorporated from the twentieth century onwards. The material used for the study was taken from sources such as sports manuals and books (DANIELS, 1986; PERSAUD, 1992; COSTER, 2010); guides and books on politics and economics (HOYER, 1944; SINDIKATONAN, 1985; HEILIGERSHALABI, 1988; KOMERSIO, 1996); the newspaper Èxtra (2011), produced and sold in Cura çao; and a Papiamentu/English bilingual dictionary (RATZLAFF-HENRIQUEZ, 2008). The analysis of recently adapted lexical items seeks to evaluate whether the loanwords studied were nativized according to the linguistic patterns of Papiamentu, or if there is a special grammar for these words. (PARADIS & LABEL, 1994; PARADIS, 1996; KENSTOWICZ, 2001; KENSTOWICZ & SUCHATO, 2004) and it also seeks to identify the existing phonological and morphological patterns in the adaptation. In order to achieve these aims, the lexical items collected from the written sources were recorded by at least two native speakers (for each word). Then, a process of data analysis was initiated, based on patterns of sound correspondence between Papiamentu words and loanwords from other languages. A total of 930 items were collected in relation to recent loans. Of these, a single language source can be traced in 892 words, while 38 items are either words formed by hybridism, in which the lexical item is formed by source words from two or more languages, or words with more than one possible etymon. In the analysis of the numbers obtained relating to Spanish and Portuguese in all the lexical elds, it can be seen that these two languages are the ones with the largest part in the process of loaning of lexical items to Papiamentu. This predominance indicates that modern Papiamentu continues to be inuenced by the languages that framed its superstratum, although the presence in recent Papiamentu vocabulary of a signicant number of items with Dutch and English etymons should also not be ignored. Taking as a theoretical framework the Theory of Constraints and Repair Strategies (TCRS), proposed by Paradis (1988) and the Theory of Perceptual Similarity (STERIADE, 2002; FLEISCHHACKER, 2001, 2002; WALKER 2003), this study attests that segmental information tends to be maximally preserved. Deletion was not the most commonly used resource, apparently occurring only when there was a need to avoid violation of a restriction in the L1. Additionally, speakers tend to maximize the perceptual similarity between the adapted from and the foreign input in the loan processes.

<p>The aim of the study was to investigate the degree of usage of 15 English loanwords atthe Swedish broadsheets Dagens Nyheter and Svenska Dagbladet’s websites, during2002-2008. Three different aspects were investigated; total usage during 2002-2008,what kind of articles the loanwords occurred in and lastly, the gender of the journalistswho had written the articles containing any of these 15 loanwords. The result did notindicate any major usage of the 15 English loanwords; the highest usage was found insections like Sport and Culture & Entertainment and in the Economy section the usagewas very low. Some indications were found pointing at the idea that gender also plays apart in the frequency of usage of English loanwords with a greater use for men thanwomen.</p>

It is not unexpected that we can find several Swahili-loanwords in Oromo because Swahili- and Oromo speaking people were neighbours for, at least, several centuries. If we are looking for Swahili-loanwords in Oromo we have, of course, to examine the southern Oromo-dialects first.

Languages that borrow Arabic words often incorporate redundant, non-lexical material (Myers Scotton 2002, Rouchdy 2002). Examples can be drawn from words of Arabic origin in the Portuguese language (Kaye 2004, Corriente 1992). The aim of this study is to explore different aspects language variation due to language contact and transfer. This study takes into consideration loanword adaptations and examines three generations of Lebanese-Brazilians living and São Paulo. While many factors account for phonological variation in the production of Brazilian Portuguese, one of the goals of this study is to show how prior language experiences can influence variation in the perception and production of another. In exploring three generations in the Lebanese-Brazilian community of São Paulo, Brazil, first-generation immigrants are believed to have more variability in their spoken Portuguese, with this variability extending to loanwords of Arabic origin. Subsequent generations are believed have less access to the Arabic language, and have less variability in their spoken Portuguese, however are expected to experience some influence of Arabic when perceiving and producing words of Arabic origin. / text

This thesis investigates native speaker attitudes towards English loanwords in Japanese and the ways in which these loanwords are used. The imperialism and hegemony of English can often cause anger or worry for the preservation of the cultural identity of the borrowing language. However, the results from a 9-page sociolinguistic questionnaire suggest that English loanwords are overwhelmingly seen as useful and necessary and are generally associated with positive attitudes. Additionally, many native Japanese speakers feel that loanwords provide more options for expression, both functionally and as a possible pragmatic tool for performing Japaneseness. On the other hand, overuse of loanwords—especially less common ones—can also exemplify the power imbalance between Japanese and the powerful and hegemonic English. The study also revealed how powerful the Japanese linguistic systems are at assimilating English into the Japanese language. With established and institutionally supported phonological and orthographic conventions in place, foreign-derived vocabulary can easily become nativized, assimilated, and considered to be Japanese in the minds of speakers.