English has served as a donor language of loanwords to many different languages in the world. One of these languages is Bangla. Despite the importance of the English influence on Bangla, few researchers have investigated English loanwords in Bangla and even fewer have looked at the distribution of them between different categories such as science, lifestyle, culture, and religion. The purpose of the present study was to establish whether the distribution of English loanwords varied between these categories, how these results would relate to findings in other languages, and what this would tell us about word-formation processes in relation to English loanwords in general. Articles related to these categories were found and analyzed to find English loanwords which were at the same time counted manually and compared with the overall amount of words in each article. The results showed a clear tendency for a higher number of English loanwords in texts concerned with the topic of science, followed by; lifestyle, culture; and lastly religion; the differences were statistically significant. These findings were also similar to what has been shown in other languages. Future research should aim to include a larger, more balanced sample, but also having a more reliable method of collecting and analyzing texts and words.

This work is concerned with romanisms which appear in the terminology of Nový občanský zákoník (Czech Civil Code) and with translation of selected terms into French while special attention is paid to legal concepts. The first chapters deal with the themes of legal language and its translation, translation techniques, loanwords in the Czech language, and romanisms. The following chapter describes the research and the methodology, in addition to analyse of the received results from the perspective of found romanisms and from the perspective of searching appropriate French equivalents. The output of this thesis is a glossary which contains the selected terms and the proposed French translations.

(in English): This thesis focuses on describing the process of assigning grammatical gender to new words and loanwords in contemporary Spanish using corpus analysis. After introducing the area of study, the second chapter sums up the theoretical foundations of grammatical gender, its definition and function in language, and sets out basic rules for its assigning. The third chapter presents a summary of historical development of the perception of grammatical gender in Spanish, from its roots in Latin to main authors of the 20th century. The fourth chapter is dedicated to the transformation of Latin gender system into Spanish. The fifth chapter sums up basic information about neology, its processes and categorisation. These theoretical foundations are drawn upon in the sixth chapter, the corpus analysis, where the thesis presents the results of the research of a sample of neologisms drawn from Banco de Neologismos and analysed using the corpus Araneum Hispanicum Maius. The thesis focuses on the relationship between the grammatical gender used by speakers using neologisms, and the natural gender, the form of neologisms, the type of neology and the etymological gender of loanwords.

Η δυνατότητα δανεισμού των διαφόρων λεξικών και ελεύθερων λειτουργικών κατηγοριών είναι ένα ζήτημα που έχει κατά καιρούς απασχολήσει έντονα την διεθνή βιβλιογραφία στον χώρο της επαφής γλωσσών. Με την παρούσα μεταπτυχιακή διατριβή: (α) εξετάζω την δυνατότητα δανεισμού των διαφόρων λεξικών και ελεύθερων λειτουργικών λέξεων, (β) διερευνώ την αξιοπιστία και την καθολικότητα ορισμένων ευρέως διαδεδομένων κλιμάκων δανεισιμότητας, όπως είναι για παράδειγμα οι κλίμακες των Haugen (1950), Muysken (1981), Matras (2007) κ.λπ., (γ) ελέγχω τους παράγοντες οι οποίοι έχει προταθεί ότι επηρεάζουν την διαδικασία, και προτείνω τους παράγοντες εκείνους οι οποίοι την καθορίζουν. Για τον λόγο αυτό, διερευνώ και συγκρίνω τον λεξιλογικό δανεισμό (α) της Γκρίκο από τις Ρομανικές διαλέκτους, (β) της Καππαδοκικής από την Τουρκική, και (γ) της Κρητικής τόσο από τις Ρομανικές διαλέκτους, όσο και από την Τουρκική. Εξετάζω πόσο εύκολο ή δύσκολο είναι για την καθεμιά από τις μελετώμενες λεξικές κατηγορίες να γίνουν αντικείμενο δανεισμού, καθώς και τους παράγοντες που φαίνεται να επιδρούν στην δανεισιμότητα των στοιχείων. Προτείνω μια κοινή κλίμακα δανεισιμότητας, για όλα τα συστήματα που μελέτησα, της μορφής (ονόματα > ρήματα > επίθετα > επιρρήματα), και με αυτό τον τρόπο δείχνω ότι ορισμένες λέξεις είναι ευκολότερα δανείσιμες από άλλες. Τα βασικά ευρήματα της έρευνας αυτής ενισχύουν την άποψη ότι καμία γενίκευση με απόλυτη ισχύ δεν μπορεί να υπάρξει στο χώρο της γλωσσικής επαφής. Η ένταση της επαφής (intensity of contact) (Thomason Kaufman, 1988; Thomason, 2001) φαίνεται να είναι ο καθοριστικός παράγοντας που μπορεί να εξηγήσει την μεγάλη διαφοροποίηση η οποία καταγράφεται μεταξύ του λεξικού και του δομικού δανεισμού. Με τον τρόπο αυτό μπορεί να εξηγηθεί γιατί για παράδειγμα στην Γκρίκο και τα Καππαδοκικά, όπου η διγλωσσία και ο δανεισμός είναι ιδιαίτερα εκτεταμένα, τα ελέυθερα λειτουργικά στοιχεία γίνονται εύκολα αντικείμενο δανεισμού, ενώ αντίθετα στη Κρητική, όπου το επίπεδο της διγλωσσίας είναι εμφανώς μικρότερο, ο δανεισμός των ελεύθερων λειτουργικών στοιχείων είναι εξαιρετικά περιορισμένος. Επιπλέον, η διαφοροποίηση που καταγράφεται ως προς τον δανεισμό των ελεύθερων λειτουργικών στοιχείων μεταξύ της Γκρίκο και της Καππαδοκικής, δείχνει ότι ο δανεισμός δεν εξαρτάται μόνο από εξωγλωσσικούς παράγοντες (π.χ. ένταση της επαφής), αλλά σε μεγάλο βαθμό καθορίζεται από εργολαβικούς παράγοντες όπως είναι η τυπολογική απόσταση (typological distance) και η δομική (α)συμβατότητα (structural (in)compatibility) μεταξύ των σε επαφή συστημάτων. Χαρακτηριστικό παράδειγμα αποτελεί η απουσία δανεισμού προθέσεων στην Καππαδοκική, γεγονός που εμφανώς οφείλεται στην ιδιότητα της Τουρκικής να έχει μόνο μεταθέσεις. / A prevailing issue of debate in language contact studies involves the borrowability of various lexical and free grammatical categories. In this MA Thesis (a) I examine the borrowing of different lexical and free functional words, (b) I investigate the reliability of well-known borrowability scales, like those that have been formulated by Haugen (1950), Muysken (1981), Matras (2007), etc, and (c) I examine the factors that determine the borrowing process. For this purpose, I examine data from the Modern Greek Dialects. More specifically, I examine the borrowing of (a) Romance words in Griko, (b) Turkish words in Cappadocian, and (c) both Romance and Turkish words in Cretan. I investigate how easy the borrowing of a particular lexical and free functional word- category can be as well as the language-contact factors affecting the process. I propose a common borrowability scale for the lexical categories (nouns > verbs > adjectives > adverbs) for all of the dialectal varieties that I have studied, and I show that certain words are relatively easy to be borrowed. My main findings show that no absolute generalization can be drawn within the language contact domain. The intensity of contact factor (Thomason & Kaufman, 1988; Thomason, 2001) seems to be the key factor in explaining the split between lexical and structural borrowing. It explains why, for example, both in Griko and Cappadocian, where bilingualism and borrowing is vastly extensive, free-functional-words are borrowed with ease, whereas in Cretan, where the level of bilingualism is obviously less extensive, the borrowing of free-functional-words is extremely restricted. Moreover, the differentiation between the borrowing of free-functional words in Griko versus that in Cappadocian shows that borrowing depends not only on external factors (e.g. the intensity of contact) but also on intralinguistic factors such as the typological distance and the structural (in)compatibility of the systems in contact. A concrete example is the absence of borrowed prepositions in Cappadocian due to Turkish containing only postpositions.

The thesis presents the development and changes of the Norwegian written standard in the United States during the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. The research is based on the material from the newspapers published by the Norwegian immigrant community in the United States. For the purpose of the analyses, three leading Norwegian written newspapers (Decorah-Posten, Skandinaven, Minneapolis Tidende; commonly known as The Big Three) were selected. The development of Norwegian is documented from the perspective of language management and its theory. The first part of the analyses deals with the influence of English as the dominant language of the area on the written Norwegian. Morphological and orthographic integration of English loanwords as well as the most affected fields of the immigrants' lexicon are discussed in this part. The second view monitors the impact of the spelling reform codified in 1907 in Norway on the written standard of the immigrants in the United States and its extent. Features such as voiced/voiceless occlusives, plural and preterite forms, use of double consonants and font are studied in the newspaper material. The individual research points give a general view on the topic of the written Norwegian as used by the immigrants in their press....

Although the similarities between the English language and the Japanese language are few, the two have influenced each other profoundly in the last century. The category of words called gairaigo in the Japanese language mostly consist of loanwords from Western languages – in particular English. But what happens when translators translate these originally English words in Japanese back to English? This thesis sought to examine what kind of local strategies Japanese-to-English translators use when translating gairaigo, if these strategies vary depending on the text type and whether or not there is a correlation between the local strategies and the word class of the gairaigo. Three different kinds of texts were examined; a novel, several newspaper articles and an operation manual. By comparing the source texts with their corresponding target texts, it was possible to determine six different local strategies used to translate gairaigo – omission, returning, transposition, modulation, equivalence and paraphrase. / Även om japanska och engelska är två vitt skilda språk har de ändå påverkat varandra i stor utsträckning i modern tid. Den kategori av ord som på japanska kallas gairaigo består av lånord som främst lånats in från västerländska språk – framförallt engelska. Men vad händer när ord inlånade till japanska från engelska översätts tillbaka till engelska igen? Den här uppsatsen hade som syfte att undersöka vilka lokala strategier översättare använder när de översätter gairaigo. Skiljer sig strategierna beroende på vilken typ av text som översättaren arbetar med? Finns det en korrelation mellan vilken typ av lokal strategi som används och det inlånade ordets ordklass? Tre olika typer av texter undersöktes: en roman, ett antal nyhetsartiklar och en manual för en bärbar spelkonsol. Genom att jämföra källtexterna med de motsvarande måltexterna kunde sex olika lokala strategier identifieras: utelämning, återlämning, transposition, modulation, ekvivalens och parafras.

I slutet av 1990-talet kom en våg av rapmusik på svenska som populariserade genren. En scen för engelskspråkig rap i Sverige hade funnits sedan 1980-talet men de tidiga försöken med rap på svenska fick sällan varma mottaganden. Idag är svensk rap större än någonsin. Ny teknik gör det lättare och snabbare att producera och distribuera musik vilket har lett till att svensk rap ytterligare har populariserats. Denna uppsats analyserar användningen av engelska i populär svensk rapmusik från två olika tidsperioder. Syftet är att se hur engelska blandas med svenska och hur detta kan ha förändrats över tid. Analysen undersöker var i den musikaliska och grammatiska strukturen kodväxlingen inträffar, och om kodväxlingen har någon pragmatisk funktion efter Sarkar och Winers Quebec-studie (2006). Materialet är hämtat från svenska Grammisgalan där de utvalda artisterna har fått nomineringar för sina verk. Det äldre materialet är låtar nominerade under åren 1999-2003, det nyare materialet är låtar som nominerades under åren 2016-2020. / In the late 1990’s Sweden saw a wave of rap music in Swedish that set a standard and popularized the genre. A scene for English spoken rap in Sweden had existed since the 1980’s but earlier attempts of rap in Swedish was often seen as something rather uncool. Today Swedish rap is bigger than ever. New technology makes producing and distributing music easier and faster which has led to the expansion of Swedish rap.    This paper analyzes the use of English in popular Swedish rap music from two different time periods. The purpose is to see how English is mixed in with Swedish and how this may differ between the different time periods. The analysis examines where in the musical and grammatical structure the changes occur, and if the switching has any pragmatic function after Sarkar and Winers Quebec study (2006). The material is collected from the Swedish Grammy Awards where the featured artists have received nominations for their work. The older material are songs nominated in the years 1999-2003, the newer material are songs nominated in the years 2016-2020.

本論文探討法語借詞進入國語音韻系統時所採取的音韻調整策略，並從優選理論和語料庫的角度來分析借詞現象，主軸為法語子音和鼻母音的調整模式。 本研究建置一個法語借詞語料庫，並統計音段保留、替代、或刪除的趨向。研究發現，音段保留與調整為主要的轉譯策略，唯有韻尾子音[ʁ]傾向於刪除。數據分析顯示法語借詞中的語言變異(variation)極為普遍，此現象說明國語中的法語借詞尚未完全詞彙化 (lexicalization)，而是仍在持續進行。因此本論文採用ROE模型 (rank-ordering model of EVAL, Coetzee 2006)來解釋法語借詞轉譯的變異現象。 法語音段的調整現象和變異情形可訴諸於制約的排序與互動。根據ROE模型，制約係以中界線(cut-off line)加以區隔，違反中界線以上的候選值會直接淘汰，而僅違反中界線以下的候選值皆可成為優選值。本研究發現，中界線以上的制約包含結構制約、信實制約、以及聯合制約(conjoined constraint);中界線以下的制約則多為信實制約。音韻表徵(phonological features)如[labial]與[nasal]在轉譯的過程中必須保留，而是否違反[voice]與[spread glottis]等表徵僅會造成語言變異。 制約的交錯排序、互動，以及中界線的位置對於法語借詞的現象提出了解釋。借詞音韻並非自成一個系統，而是反映了借入語和普遍語法皆存在的制約。 / This thesis investigates the phonological adaptations of French loanwords in Mandarin. The focus is on the loanword adjustment of French consonants and nasal vowels. A loanword corpus is established. Based on the statistical analysis, the adaptation pattern of each foreign segment is provided. The thesis observes that preservation and adaptation are the major strategies in loanword adaptation. The only exception is [ʁ] in the coda position, which has segment deletion as the major substitute. Variant substitutes are common in French loanwords, which suggest that the loanword adaptation of French is an ongoing process in Mandarin. Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky 1993/2004) is the major framework in this thesis. To account for variations, Coetzee’s (2006) rank-ordering model of EVAL (ROE) is also used for analysis. A critical cut-off line divides the constraints into two parts: constraints above the cut-off line, and constraints below the cut-off line. Violations of the former are fatal, while violations of the latter lead to variations. The fatal constraints place restrictions on illicit segments, segment combinations, and prosodic preferences. These crucial constraints include markedness constraints, faithfulness constraints, or even the conjunction of the two. Constraints below the cut-off line are mostly IDENT constraints. Violations of IDENT features such as [voice] and [spread glottis] bring only variations. This is contrary to the violations of IDENT [nasal] and IDENT [labial], which result in ill-formedness. Based on the constraint ranking and the position of the cut-off line, the thesis shows that loanword phonology does not form an idiosyncratic grammar. Instead, it includes the constraints that are latent in L1 and reflects universal grammar.

The aim of this thesis is to analyze the methods used by translators when translating spoken language in contemporary Danish fiction into Czech. In the first chapter, the Czech translation tradition is defined. This tradition influences Czech usage and tendencies. The second chapter introduces the features of stylized language reflected in literature written in Czech. As will be shown, these are mainly lexicological and morphological features and related stylistical means. The following chapters are devoted to the analysis of individual features of stylized language and their translation into Czech. Discussed are loanwords, diminutives, expletives, morphological changes, realia and politeness. The translated units are compared with Czech translation tradition and literature written in Czech.

In my diploma thesis I analyze the key issues connected with the difficulties of communication between Spaniards and native inhabitants after the arrival to the American continent in 1492. Concretely, I focus on the first period of contact with the indigenous population. In the first part of the thesis I describe the historical and political situation in the area. Then I characterize the language policy of the Spanish court and also the linguistic situation in Latin America after the arrival of Spaniards. Next part of the thesis is dedicated to dominant Indian languages, which were used for the communication of colonizers and indigenous people and had the most significant influence on the Spanish language. There is also characteristic of the role of interpreters and importance of signs for communication during the conquest of America. The third chapter is dedicated firstly to the theoretical definition of the basic terms relevant for the topic. I describe the ways of enriching the vocabulary of languages and I explain the way how the new vocabulary was transmitted during communication between the Spaniards and the Indians. I also mention the categories of vocabulary which were most influenced by the indigenous languages with examples of loanwords from native languages in Spanish. In final part I...