Estudos recentes indicam que os peptídeos obtidos pela hidrolise enzimática da caseína podem apresentar atividades antioxidantes. Neste trabalho, previamente obteve-se os peptídeos através de hidrolise da caseína utilizando as enzimas Alcalase e Flavourzyme (4h, a 50ºC e pH 8), selecionando os que apresentaram as melhores características, in vitro, relativas à atividade antioxidante. A hidrolise enzimática utilizando a enzima Flavourzyme mostrou melhores resultados, com alto valor de proteína solúvel e conteúdo de aminoácidos livres, além de peptídeos de menor peso molecular do que com a Alcalase, como observado nas análises de cromatografia de permeação em gel e eletroforese em gel de poliacrilamida. Os peptídeos de caseína obtidos com a Flavourzyme também apresentaram melhores resultados utilizando o método ABTS na determinação da capacidade antioxidante. O hidrolisado obtido a partir da enzima Flavourzyme foi aplicado em produtos cárneos e em chocolate branco. Em produtos cárneos, os peptídeos de caseína (2.0%) inibiram, efetivamente, a peroxidação lipídica em carne moída (100%) e em carne mecanicamente separada de ave (CMS) (cerca de 20%) indicando que estes peptídeos podem ser utilizados nestes produtos, auxiliando na prevenção da formação de flavor desagradável e aumentando sua vida útil. Relativamente a sua aplicação em chocolate branco, esta adição teve o intuito de inibir escurecimento deste produto, fator considerado como limitante na sua vida-útil sendo conseqüência tanto de reações de escurecimento não enzimático quanto da oxidação de lipídeos. Os parâmetros que indicaram alteração lipidica e reações não enzimáticas foram mensurados em três diferentes amostras de chocolate branco: uma amostra com 0,2%, de manteiga de cacau, de antioxidante sintético Grindox 562, outra com 0,2%, de manteiga de cacau, dos peptídeos de caseína e a terceira amostra sem qualquer tipo de antioxidante. As amostras foram expostas a duas temperaturas diferentes: 20 ± 2 e 28 ± 2ºC. Os resultados das análises realizadas indicaram que as amostras armazenadas à temperatura de 20ºC apresentaram resultados significativamente melhores àqueles das amostras armazenadas à temperatura de 28ºC, relativos ao índice de acidez, à atividade de água, ao índice de peróxido, à cor e às substâncias reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBARS), indicando melhor conservação deste produto. Também foi observado que a adição de quaisquer dos antioxidantes empregados não influenciou de forma significativa os resultados obtidos, evidenciandose assim, que o principal parâmetro responsável pelas alterações do chocolate branco em sua vida útil refere-se à temperatura de armazenamento a qual as amostras foram submetidas. / Recent studies indicate that peptides obtained by casein hydrolysis may have antioxidant activity. In this work, previous casein peptides were obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis using Alcalase and Flavourzyme (4h, at 50ºC and pH 8), selecting the ones that showed the best characteristics in vitro, related to the antioxidant activity. The enzymatic hydrolysis using Flavourzyme showed the best results, with higher soluble protein and free amino acid content and producing lower molecular weight peptides than Alcalase, as observed by gel permeation chromatography and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Related to its application in meat products, casein peptides obtained with Flavourzyme also exhibited greater antioxidant capacity using the ABTS method. The casein hydrolyzed from Flavourzyme enzyme was applicated in ground beef homogenates, mechanically deboned meat (MDM) of poultry and white chocolate. In meat products, casein peptides (2.0%) effectively inhibited lipid peroxidation in ground beef homogenates (100%) and mechanically deboned meat (about 20%) of poultry. Casein peptides may be useful in meat processing as another naturally occurring antioxidant, helping to prevent off-flavor formation in meat products and increasing shelf life. In the use for white chocolate, the goal was to inhibit its browning, the main problems that limit the white chocolate’s shelf-life. Non-enzymatic browning reaction and lipid oxidation were involved directly in the browning of white chocolate. Thus, parameters which indicated fat alteration and non-enzymatic reactions were measured in three different samples of white chocolate. One sample with 0,2% of cocoa butter, with the synthetic antioxidant Grindox 562, other with 0,2% of cocoa butter, with the natural antioxidant and the third sample without any kind of antioxidant. The samples were exposed to two different temperatures: 20 ± 2 and 28 ± 2ºC. The results of the analysis made indicated that the samples stored at the temperature of 20ºC showed results significantly better to those samples stored at the temperature of 28ºC, related to the conservation of the white chocolate. Besides, the results indicated that the addition of any antioxidants employees has not influenced in a significant way the results obtained. Thus, it was evidenced that the main responsible parameter for the alterations of the white chocolate’s shelf-life is related to the storage temperature to which the samples were submitted.

Estudos recentes indicam que os peptídeos obtidos pela hidrolise enzimática da caseína podem apresentar atividades antioxidantes. Neste trabalho, previamente obteve-se os peptídeos através de hidrolise da caseína utilizando as enzimas Alcalase e Flavourzyme (4h, a 50ºC e pH 8), selecionando os que apresentaram as melhores características, in vitro, relativas à atividade antioxidante. A hidrolise enzimática utilizando a enzima Flavourzyme mostrou melhores resultados, com alto valor de proteína solúvel e conteúdo de aminoácidos livres, além de peptídeos de menor peso molecular do que com a Alcalase, como observado nas análises de cromatografia de permeação em gel e eletroforese em gel de poliacrilamida. Os peptídeos de caseína obtidos com a Flavourzyme também apresentaram melhores resultados utilizando o método ABTS na determinação da capacidade antioxidante. O hidrolisado obtido a partir da enzima Flavourzyme foi aplicado em produtos cárneos e em chocolate branco. Em produtos cárneos, os peptídeos de caseína (2.0%) inibiram, efetivamente, a peroxidação lipídica em carne moída (100%) e em carne mecanicamente separada de ave (CMS) (cerca de 20%) indicando que estes peptídeos podem ser utilizados nestes produtos, auxiliando na prevenção da formação de flavor desagradável e aumentando sua vida útil. Relativamente a sua aplicação em chocolate branco, esta adição teve o intuito de inibir escurecimento deste produto, fator considerado como limitante na sua vida-útil sendo conseqüência tanto de reações de escurecimento não enzimático quanto da oxidação de lipídeos. Os parâmetros que indicaram alteração lipidica e reações não enzimáticas foram mensurados em três diferentes amostras de chocolate branco: uma amostra com 0,2%, de manteiga de cacau, de antioxidante sintético Grindox 562, outra com 0,2%, de manteiga de cacau, dos peptídeos de caseína e a terceira amostra sem qualquer tipo de antioxidante. As amostras foram expostas a duas temperaturas diferentes: 20 ± 2 e 28 ± 2ºC. Os resultados das análises realizadas indicaram que as amostras armazenadas à temperatura de 20ºC apresentaram resultados significativamente melhores àqueles das amostras armazenadas à temperatura de 28ºC, relativos ao índice de acidez, à atividade de água, ao índice de peróxido, à cor e às substâncias reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBARS), indicando melhor conservação deste produto. Também foi observado que a adição de quaisquer dos antioxidantes empregados não influenciou de forma significativa os resultados obtidos, evidenciandose assim, que o principal parâmetro responsável pelas alterações do chocolate branco em sua vida útil refere-se à temperatura de armazenamento a qual as amostras foram submetidas. / Recent studies indicate that peptides obtained by casein hydrolysis may have antioxidant activity. In this work, previous casein peptides were obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis using Alcalase and Flavourzyme (4h, at 50ºC and pH 8), selecting the ones that showed the best characteristics in vitro, related to the antioxidant activity. The enzymatic hydrolysis using Flavourzyme showed the best results, with higher soluble protein and free amino acid content and producing lower molecular weight peptides than Alcalase, as observed by gel permeation chromatography and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Related to its application in meat products, casein peptides obtained with Flavourzyme also exhibited greater antioxidant capacity using the ABTS method. The casein hydrolyzed from Flavourzyme enzyme was applicated in ground beef homogenates, mechanically deboned meat (MDM) of poultry and white chocolate. In meat products, casein peptides (2.0%) effectively inhibited lipid peroxidation in ground beef homogenates (100%) and mechanically deboned meat (about 20%) of poultry. Casein peptides may be useful in meat processing as another naturally occurring antioxidant, helping to prevent off-flavor formation in meat products and increasing shelf life. In the use for white chocolate, the goal was to inhibit its browning, the main problems that limit the white chocolate’s shelf-life. Non-enzymatic browning reaction and lipid oxidation were involved directly in the browning of white chocolate. Thus, parameters which indicated fat alteration and non-enzymatic reactions were measured in three different samples of white chocolate. One sample with 0,2% of cocoa butter, with the synthetic antioxidant Grindox 562, other with 0,2% of cocoa butter, with the natural antioxidant and the third sample without any kind of antioxidant. The samples were exposed to two different temperatures: 20 ± 2 and 28 ± 2ºC. The results of the analysis made indicated that the samples stored at the temperature of 20ºC showed results significantly better to those samples stored at the temperature of 28ºC, related to the conservation of the white chocolate. Besides, the results indicated that the addition of any antioxidants employees has not influenced in a significant way the results obtained. Thus, it was evidenced that the main responsible parameter for the alterations of the white chocolate’s shelf-life is related to the storage temperature to which the samples were submitted.

Estudos recentes indicam que os peptídeos obtidos pela hidrolise enzimática da caseína podem apresentar atividades antioxidantes. Neste trabalho, previamente obteve-se os peptídeos através de hidrolise da caseína utilizando as enzimas Alcalase e Flavourzyme (4h, a 50ºC e pH 8), selecionando os que apresentaram as melhores características, in vitro, relativas à atividade antioxidante. A hidrolise enzimática utilizando a enzima Flavourzyme mostrou melhores resultados, com alto valor de proteína solúvel e conteúdo de aminoácidos livres, além de peptídeos de menor peso molecular do que com a Alcalase, como observado nas análises de cromatografia de permeação em gel e eletroforese em gel de poliacrilamida. Os peptídeos de caseína obtidos com a Flavourzyme também apresentaram melhores resultados utilizando o método ABTS na determinação da capacidade antioxidante. O hidrolisado obtido a partir da enzima Flavourzyme foi aplicado em produtos cárneos e em chocolate branco. Em produtos cárneos, os peptídeos de caseína (2.0%) inibiram, efetivamente, a peroxidação lipídica em carne moída (100%) e em carne mecanicamente separada de ave (CMS) (cerca de 20%) indicando que estes peptídeos podem ser utilizados nestes produtos, auxiliando na prevenção da formação de flavor desagradável e aumentando sua vida útil. Relativamente a sua aplicação em chocolate branco, esta adição teve o intuito de inibir escurecimento deste produto, fator considerado como limitante na sua vida-útil sendo conseqüência tanto de reações de escurecimento não enzimático quanto da oxidação de lipídeos. Os parâmetros que indicaram alteração lipidica e reações não enzimáticas foram mensurados em três diferentes amostras de chocolate branco: uma amostra com 0,2%, de manteiga de cacau, de antioxidante sintético Grindox 562, outra com 0,2%, de manteiga de cacau, dos peptídeos de caseína e a terceira amostra sem qualquer tipo de antioxidante. As amostras foram expostas a duas temperaturas diferentes: 20 ± 2 e 28 ± 2ºC. Os resultados das análises realizadas indicaram que as amostras armazenadas à temperatura de 20ºC apresentaram resultados significativamente melhores àqueles das amostras armazenadas à temperatura de 28ºC, relativos ao índice de acidez, à atividade de água, ao índice de peróxido, à cor e às substâncias reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBARS), indicando melhor conservação deste produto. Também foi observado que a adição de quaisquer dos antioxidantes empregados não influenciou de forma significativa os resultados obtidos, evidenciandose assim, que o principal parâmetro responsável pelas alterações do chocolate branco em sua vida útil refere-se à temperatura de armazenamento a qual as amostras foram submetidas. / Recent studies indicate that peptides obtained by casein hydrolysis may have antioxidant activity. In this work, previous casein peptides were obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis using Alcalase and Flavourzyme (4h, at 50ºC and pH 8), selecting the ones that showed the best characteristics in vitro, related to the antioxidant activity. The enzymatic hydrolysis using Flavourzyme showed the best results, with higher soluble protein and free amino acid content and producing lower molecular weight peptides than Alcalase, as observed by gel permeation chromatography and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Related to its application in meat products, casein peptides obtained with Flavourzyme also exhibited greater antioxidant capacity using the ABTS method. The casein hydrolyzed from Flavourzyme enzyme was applicated in ground beef homogenates, mechanically deboned meat (MDM) of poultry and white chocolate. In meat products, casein peptides (2.0%) effectively inhibited lipid peroxidation in ground beef homogenates (100%) and mechanically deboned meat (about 20%) of poultry. Casein peptides may be useful in meat processing as another naturally occurring antioxidant, helping to prevent off-flavor formation in meat products and increasing shelf life. In the use for white chocolate, the goal was to inhibit its browning, the main problems that limit the white chocolate’s shelf-life. Non-enzymatic browning reaction and lipid oxidation were involved directly in the browning of white chocolate. Thus, parameters which indicated fat alteration and non-enzymatic reactions were measured in three different samples of white chocolate. One sample with 0,2% of cocoa butter, with the synthetic antioxidant Grindox 562, other with 0,2% of cocoa butter, with the natural antioxidant and the third sample without any kind of antioxidant. The samples were exposed to two different temperatures: 20 ± 2 and 28 ± 2ºC. The results of the analysis made indicated that the samples stored at the temperature of 20ºC showed results significantly better to those samples stored at the temperature of 28ºC, related to the conservation of the white chocolate. Besides, the results indicated that the addition of any antioxidants employees has not influenced in a significant way the results obtained. Thus, it was evidenced that the main responsible parameter for the alterations of the white chocolate’s shelf-life is related to the storage temperature to which the samples were submitted.

The advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) constitute a large variety of compounds formed from nonenzymatic amino-carbonyl interactions between reducing sugars or oxidized lipids and proteins, nucleic acids or aminophospholipids. The AGEs formation in foods and biological systems is a topic of increasing interest for the science, since they are involved in proinflammatory and pro-oxidative effects related to the pathogenesis of chronic degenerative diseases such as diabetes, Alzheimer's disease and renal failure. The Nε-carboxymethyllisine (CML) was the first AGE identified in foods and, since then, has been the compound of choice in studies on which a single product is used as an AGE marker. Immunochemical or instrumental methods are available for the AGEs determination, but they present limitations and there is not an ideal method yet. Thus, in order to compare and optimize different analytical methods, this study aimed to determine the CML content on enteral and parenteral nutrition formulas by ELISA and LC-MS/MS. So, in order to compare and optimize different analytical methods, this study aimed to determine the content of CML in nutritional enteral and parenteral formulas by ELISA and by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS / MS). Thus, 5 parenteral and 17 enteral commercially available formulations were investigated. All samples studied showed detectable levels of CML, regardless of the method of analysis used. The parenteral formulations presented CML contents measured by ELISA ranging from 529.9 ± 33.47 to 1948.88 ± 3.68 ng CML/mL of sample and showed positive linear correlations to their content in lipids (0.9259) and carbohydrates (0.9426), but they were not submitted to the LC-MS/MS analysis due to the impossibility of applying the established purification protocol for this group of samples. Enteral formulations analyzed by ELISA presented CML contents ranging from 1076.91 ± 76.87 to 55950.71 ± 1891.29 ng CML/mL of sample and showed positive correlations to its contents in carbohydrate (0.6057), lipid (0.5264) and protein (0.6157). They showed a variation from 0.09 to 0.503 μg CML/mg of protein of the diets when analyzed by LC-MS/MS and there was no correlation between CML and the variables "lipid", "carbohydrate" or "protein" calculated for this group. The investigation conducted during the samples preparation prior to injection into the LC-MS/MS showed a significant loss of CML during the different stages of the protocol, compromising the reliability of the results obtained through this method of analysis, while the comparison between the results obtained through different methods applied to similar samples showed the reliability of the anti-CML ELISA test used in this experiments. The results of this study indicate the need for improvement of AGEs analysis protocols in food and should guide future research on this area. The determination of reliable methods of detection, which enable the measurement of AGEs structures in body fluids, tissues and also in food, in a sensitive, specific, fast and not too expensive way is a challenge that remains present on this field. / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Os produtos da glicação avançada (AGEs, do inglês Advanced Glycation Endproducts) constituem grande variedade de substâncias formadas a partir de interações amino-carbonilo, de natureza não-enzimática, entre açúcares redutores ou lipídeos oxidados e proteínas, aminofosfolipídeos ou ácidos nucléicos. A formação de AGEs nos alimentos e em sistemas biológicos constitui tema de crescente interesse, desde que estão associados a efeitos pró-oxidativos e pró-inflamatórios envolvidos na patogênese de diversas doenças crônico-degenerativas como o diabetes, o mal de Alzheimer, a insuficiência renal. A Nε-carboximetilisina (CML) foi o primeiro AGE a ser identificado em alimentos e tem sido o composto de escolha em estudos em que um único produto é usado como marcador de AGEs de um sistema. Métodos imunoquímicos ou instrumentais estão disponíveis para a determinação da CML, mas ambos apresentam limitações, não havendo ainda um método considerado ideal. Assim, a fim de comparar e otimizar diferentes métodos analíticos, o presente estudo teve como objetivo determinar o conteúdo em CML de fórmulas nutricionais enterais e parenterais através das técnicas de ELISA e de cromatografia líquida acoplada à espectrometria de massa tandem (LC-MS/MS). Para tanto, foram investigadas 5 formulações parenterais e 17 enterais comercialmente disponíveis. Todas as amostras investigadas apresentaram níveis detectáveis de CML neste estudo, independentemente do método de análise utilizado. As fórmulas parenterais apresentaram conteúdos mensurados através de ELISA que variaram de 529,9 ± 33,47 a 1948,88 ± 3,68 ng de CML/mL de amostra e apresentaram correlações lineares positivas quanto aos seus conteúdos em lipídeos (0,9259) e em carboidratos (0,9426), mas não foram submetidas às análises através do LC-MS/MS devido à inviabilidade da aplicação para esse grupo de amostras do protocolo de purificação estabelecido nesta investigação. As formulações enterais apresentaram conteúdos em CML que variaram entre 1076,91 ± 76,87 e 55950,71 ± 1891,29 ng de CML/ mL de amostra e evidenciaram correlações positivas quanto aos seus conteúdos em carboidratos (0,6057), lipídeos (0,5264) e proteínas (0,6157), quando analisadas através de ELISA, e apresentaram uma variação de 0,09 e 0,503 μg CML/ mg de proteína das dietas quando analisadas através do LC-MS/MS, não havendo correlações entre a CML e as variáveis “lipídeos”, “carboidratos” ou “proteínas” para esse grupo. A investigação conduzida durante o processo de preparo das amostras, anterior à injeção no LC-MS/MS, evidenciou uma expressiva perda da CML durante as diferentes etapas do protocolo, comprometendo a confiabilidade dos resultados obtidos através desse método de análise, enquanto a comparação entre os resultados encontrados através dos diferentes métodos aplicados a amostras semelhantes em composição e preparo demonstrou a confiabilidade do teste de ELISA anti-CML utilizado nas condições deste experimento Os resultados do presente estudo apontam a necessidade de aperfeiçoamento dos protocolos de análise de AGEs em alimentos e deverão guiar futuras investigações nesta área. Dentre os desafios que permanecem presentes no campo de estudo dos AGEs está a definição de métodos de detecção confiáveis, que possibilitem a mensuração de estruturas nos fluidos ou tecidos corporais e nos alimentos, de maneira sensível, específica, rápida e não muito dispendiosa.

Milch dient der Versorgung neugeborener Säugetiere mit allen lebensnotwendigen Nährstoffen, wie Proteinen, Fetten, Kohlenhydraten, Vitaminen und Mineralstoffen. Insbesondere die Proteingruppe der Caseine, die in der Milch zum Großteil zu Caseinmicellen assoziiert vorliegen, stellen essentielle Aminosäuren bereit und transportieren große Mengen Calcium und Phosphor (Fox, 2008; Horne, 2008). Neben der Bedeutung als erste Nahrungsquelle für Neugeborene haben sich Milch und Milchprodukte zu einem der wichtigsten Handels- und Verarbeitungsgüter entwickelt. In Deutschland ist vorrangig der Konsum von Kuhmilch verbreitet. Zunehmend wird aber auch die Milch von Büffel, Schaf und Ziege direkt oder verarbeitet konsumiert (Fox, 2008; Töpel, 2016). Dabei unterscheidet sich die Zusammensetzung der Milch zwischen den verschiedenen Tierarten zum Teil beträchtlich. Diese Unterschiede betreffen nicht nur die Anteile der Hauptnährstoffe, sondern auch die Eigenschaften und die Zusammensetzung der Caseinmicellen (CM) (Fox, 2008). Die Eigenschaften und die Stabilität gegenüber einer Calciumkomplexierung wurden für bovine Caseinmicellen in der Literatur bereits ausführlich diskutiert (Horne, 1984; Banon & Hardy, 1992; Needs et al., 2000; O’Connell et al., 2001; Huppertz et al., 2004). Über die Micellen anderer Tierarten lagen zu Beginn der Untersuchungen hingegen kaum Informationen vor. Ein Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es deshalb, die Caseinmicellen aus der Milch der wiederkäuenden Paarhufer Kuh, Büffel, Schaf, Ziege und Kamel und der nicht wiederkäuenden Unpaarhufer Pferd und Esel sowie aus Humanmilch bezüglich Größe, Struktur, Zusammensetzung und Stabilität zu charakterisieren und daraus Erkenntnisse zum tierartspezifischen Micellaufbau abzuleiten. Hierzu wurden die Caseinmicellen mit Hilfe der Ultrazentrifugation von der Molke abgetrennt und in tierartspezifischem, synthetischem Milchultrafiltrate (SMUF) resuspendiert. Untersuchungen der hydrodynamischen Durchmesser mittels dynamischer Lichtstreuung zeigten, dass die CM der Nicht-Wiederkäuer Stute und Esel sowie des Kamels deutlich größer waren als die der Wiederkäuer Kuh, Büffel, Schaf und Ziege, wohingegen sich die humanen CM als die kleinsten zeigten. Mittels Rasterelektronenmikroskopie (REM) konnten aufgrund der beobachteten unterschiedlichen Oberflächenstrukturen für einige Tierarten Hinweise hinsichtlich einer größen- und κ-Casein-abhängigen Ausbildung von κ Casein ‚bunches‘ oder einer ‚hairy layer‘ an der Oberfläche der kolloidalen Partikel erhalten werden. Anhand der Aminosäurezusammensetzung der micellaren Proteine konnte abgeleitet werden, dass bei allen Tierarten vor allem Phosphoserin sowie die hydrophoben Aminosäuren maßgeblich am Aufbau der CM beteiligt sein dürften. Hierbei wurden jedoch tierartspezifische Unterschiede festgestellt. Bei den Wiederkäuern wurde eine besonders starke Assoziation der Caseinmonomere über Phosphoserincluster vermutet, während bei den Nicht-Wiederkäuern und insbesondere bei den humanen CM auch hydrophobe Wechselwirkungen eine entscheidende Rolle spielen. Calcium und anorganischer Phosphor konnten als die bedeutendsten micellaren Salze identifiziert werden, die in besonders hohen Gehalten in den CM von Stute und Esel vorkamen. Humane Micellen wiesen deutlich niedrigere Mineralstoffgehalte auf, weshalb die Bedeutung der elektrostatischen Wechselwirkungen für die Verknüpfung der Caseinmonomere geringer eingeschätzt wurde als bei den weiteren untersuchten Tierarten. In Bezug auf die Stabilität gegenüber einer Calciumkomplexierung mit Ethylenglycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,N\',N\'-tetraessigsäure (EGTA) unterschieden sich die CM der Tiere sehr deutlich voneinander. Instabile Micellen zeichneten sich durch eine starke Abnahme der Trübung, eine Zunahme des extra-micellaren Caseins sowie eine schneller einsetzende Verkleinerung des hydrodynamischen Durchmessers aus. Für die Micellstabilität ergab sich die folgende Reihenfolge: Kuh << Büffel < Ziege < Schaf < Kamel = Stute < Esel < Mensch. Caseinmicellen eignen sich, neben dem natürlichen Transport von Aminosäuren und Mineralstoffen, als Nanotransporter für bioaktive Substanzen wie Vitamin D2 (Semo et al., 2007), β-Carotin (Sáiz-Abajo et al., 2013), Curcumin (Sahu et al., 2008), Triclosan (Roach et al., 2009) oder auch dem antibakteriellen Enzym Lysozym (de Roos et al., 1998; Anema & de Kruif, 2013). Da zu Beginn der Untersuchungen ausschließlich Daten zur Beladung boviner Caseinmicellen mit Hühnereiweißlysozym (HEWL) verfügbar waren, sollte zunächst die Stabilität der tierartspezifischen Micellen und die Effektivität der Beladung mit Lysozym beurteilt werden. Zusätzlich sollte die antibakterielle Wirksamkeit der mit Lysozym beladenen Caseinmicellen verschiedener Säugetiere sowohl in vitro als auch in orientierenden Untersuchungen gegenüber Bakterien erfasst werden. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass die CM aller untersuchten Tierarten mit HEWL beladen werden können. Hinsichtlich der Stabilität der CM sowie der Aufnahmekapazität wurden jedoch tierartspezifische Unterschiede festgestellt. Allgemein konnten die CM aus Wiederkäuer- und aus Humanmilch als stabiler beschrieben werden, wobei die HEWL-Aufnahme bei den CM der Wiederkäuer höher war. Die lytische Enzymaktivität des HEWL in vitro veränderte sich infolge der Micellassoziation für die meisten untersuchten Tierarten im Vergleich zu frei vorliegendem HEWL nicht. Für die antibakterielle Wirksamkeit gegenüber Bacillus subtilis wurden hingegen Unterschiede zwischen den verschiedenen Tierarten beobachtet. Für die HEWL-haltigen CM von Büffel und Ziege ergaben sich die gleichen Wachstumsverzögerungen wie bei freiem HEWL in SMUF. Im Gegensatz dazu wurde die bakteriostatische Wirkung durch die HEWL-Micellen von Kuh, Kamel und Mensch inhibiert, durch die von Schaf, Stute und Esel hingegen verstärkt. Neben der Funktionalisierung der Caseinmicellen durch den Einbau bioaktiver Substanzen, können die Partikel auch chemisch modifiziert werden. Eine Möglichkeit stellt hierbei die Glykierung dar. Glykierungsreaktionen zwischen den Carbonylgruppen reduzierender Zucker und Aminosäureseitenketten wurden für nicht-micellare Caseine in einer Vielzahl an Studien untersucht (Zin El-Din & Aoki, 1993; Morales & van Boekel, 1996; Pellegrino et al., 1999; Lima et al., 2009; Akıllıoğlu & Gökmen, 2014). Über den Einfluss der micellaren Anordnung der Caseine auf die Glykierungsreaktionen war nur wenig bekannt. Erkenntnisse diesbezüglich könnten einen Beitrag zur Aufklärung des Aufbaus der Caseinmicellen leisten. Die Untersuchungen zeigten, dass bei der Erhitzung von micellaren und nicht-micellaren Caseinen für 0 - 4 h bei 100 °C in Gegenwart der reduzierenden Zucker Lactose und Glucose hauptsächlich die frühe Phase der Maillard Reaktion abläuft. Die Bildung der Amadori-Produkte erfolgte dabei in den CM und im nicht micellaren Natrium-Caseinat (NaCas) in gleichem Maße. Hieraus wurde eine ähnliche Zugänglichkeit der reaktiven Aminosäureseitenketten in den micellaren und nicht micellaren Caseinen geschlussfolgert. Signifikante Unterschiede konnten hinsichtlich der Produktbildung der späten Phase der Maillard-Reaktion beobachtet werden. Während Nε-Carboxymethyllysin (CML) im NaCas in höheren Gehalten detektiert wurde, trat in den CM eine verstärkte Pyrralin-Bildung auf. Zudem bewirkte eine Inkubation in Gegenwart von Lactose eine bevorzugte CML-Bildung, wohingegen mit Glucose Pyrralin in höheren Mengen gebildet wurde. Die Maillard-induzierten Proteinquervernetzungsprodukte Glyoxal-Lysin-Dimer und Pentosidin wurden im Vergleich zum zuckerunabhängig gebildeten Lysinoalanin in deutlich geringeren Gehalten erfasst. Hohe Oligomerisierungsgrade zwischen 50 und 84 % zeigten jedoch, dass die Proteinquer-vernetzungen, die im Zuge der Glykierung entstehen, quantitativ von größerer Bedeutung sind. Anhand der Bestimmung der hydrodynamischen Durchmesser und mit Hilfe von REM-Aufnahmen konnte eine weitgehend intra-micellare Proteinquervernetzung abgeleitet werden. Die Ausbildung intra-micellarer Oligomere bewirkte dabei eine höhere Micellstabilität gegenüber einem Calciumentzug durch EGTA. Die vorliegenden Untersuchungen deuten darauf hin, dass die hydrophilen Zuckermoleküle über die von Dalgleish (2011) vorgeschlagenen Wasserkanäle in die CM eindringen und die frühe Phase der Maillard-Reaktion anschließend vor allem in diesen Regionen erfolgt. Die weiteren Phasen der Maillard-Reaktion könnten dann, durch ein tieferes Eindringen der reaktiven Komponenten, zunehmend auch in dehydratisierteren Bereichen ablaufen. Bezüglich des Aufbaus der Caseinmicellen unterstützen die in dieser Arbeit gewonnen Ergebnisse die Vorstellungen des Internal Structure Modells.

The Maillard reaction is a network of different non-enzymatic reactions between carbonyl groups of reducing sugars and amino groups from amino acids, peptides, or proteins, which progresses in three major stages and originates a very heterogeneous mixture of reaction products. It is also known as non-enzymatic browning, due to the brown macromolecular pigments formed in the final stage of the reaction. The chemistry underlying the Maillard reaction is complex. It encloses not only one reaction pathway, but a whole network of various transformations. As virtually all foods contain both proteins and carbohydrates, Maillard reaction products are present in the daily diet in considerable amounts. The endogenous formation of Maillard reaction products, especially related to ageing and diabetes, aroused intense discussions about the health consequences of the “glycation”, the term that describes the in vivo reaction corresponding to the Maillard reaction in foods. Melanoidins are the final brown products of the Maillard reaction. They are responsible for the color formed during the heat processing of foods like coffee, bread, malt, and beef. Melanoidins are high molecular weight polydisperse polymers containing nitrogen. Their structure is largely unknown. Coffee melanoidins, which are object of the present study, contain thermally transformed polysaccharides, proteins, and phenolic compounds. Since the mechanisms involved on the formation of these macromolecules, and the chemical transformations which take place during the heat treatment are not completely elucidated, key structural features were analyzed. Especially the incorporation of chlorogenic acids in the melanoidin skeleton was object of attention of the present work. Another major aim of this work was to investigate the influence of the Maillard reaction on the inhibitory potential of food components against zinc metalloproteases. The studied enzymes were three human matrix metalloproteases (MMP-1, -2 and -9), which are able to degrade matrix proteins and participate in many physiological processes, including tissue turnover and repair, but also constitute important targets in malignant and degenerative diseases. A microbial collagenase from Chlostridium histolyticum was chosen due to its subtract similarity to MMPs. Furthermore, Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE), which plays a central role in cardiovascular pathologies such as hypertension and cardiac hypertrophy, was investigated. As a prototypical Maillard reaction product, coffee melanoidin was adopted. Due to the roast dependent inhibitory activity of the coffee melanoidin fractions against matrix metalloproteases, the functionalization caused by the non-enzymatic browning was closer investigated. Na-carboxyalkylated derivatives of a sequence of relevant peptides were synthesized, in a variation of the process-induced formation of Nε-carboxymethyllysine, a major advanced glycation end-product (AGE). The inhibitory activity against zinc metalloproteases of the sequence of selected peptides and their Na-carboxymethyl- (CM-) and Na-carboxyethyl- (CE-) derivates was investigated.:LIST OF CONTENTS I LIST OF TABLES IV LIST OF FIGURES V LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS VII 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 BACKGROUND 3 2.1 Maillard reaction in food 3 2.1.1 Melanoidins 8 2.2 Coffee 11 2.2.1 General aspects 11 2.2.1.1 Coffee production 12 2.2.1.2 General chemical composition 14 2.2.1.3 Coffee and health 20 2.2.2 Coffee melanoidins 24 2.2.2.1 Chemistry of coffee melanoidins 24 2.2.2.2 Properties of coffee melanoidins 29 2.3 Zinc metallopeptidases 32 2.3.1 Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) 33 2.3.1.1 Functions of MMPs 35 2.3.1.2 Structure of MMPs 37 2.3.1.3 Inhibition of MMPs 39 2.3.2 Clostridium histolyticum collagenase (ChC) 43 2.3.2.1 Functions of ChC 43 2.3.2.2 Structure of ChC 43 2.3.2.3 Inhibition of ChC 44 2.3.3 Agiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) 45 2.3.3.1 Functions of ACE 45 2.3.3.2 Structure of ACE 46 2.3.3.3 Inhibition of ACE 48 3 EXPERIMENTAL SECTION 50 3.1 Chemicals, materials and equipment 50 3.1.1 Chemicals 50 3.1.2 Material 52 3.1.3 Equipment 52 3.1.4 Solutions 54 3.2 Synthesis of Nα-carboxyalkylated peptides 55 3.2.1 Nα-carboxyalkylation of GP, LL, IA, GA, GL, AP, IP and IPP by reductive alkylation 55 3.2.2 Nα-carboxyalkylation of IW using sodium cyanoborohydride 56 3.3 Purification 57 3.3.1 Ion Exchange Chromatographic purification 57 3.3.1.1 Spotting test 58 3.3.2 HPLC purification of CM-IW 58 3.3.3 Overview of the synthesis and elution conditions 59 3.4 Characterization of carboxyalkylated peptides 61 3.4.1 Mass spectrometry 61 3.4.2 Elemental Analysis 61 3.4.3 Analytical characteristics of carboxyalkylated peptides 62 3.5 Preparation of coffee fractions 65 3.5.1 Roasting conditions 65 3.5.2 Fractionation of coffee samples: Isolation of coffee melanoidins 67 3.6 Structural studies 69 3.6.1 Estimation of the molecular weight 69 3.6.2 C/N ratio 70 3.6.3 Amino acid analysis 70 3.6.3.1 Acid hydrolysis 70 3.6.3.2 General amino acid analysis 70 3.6.3.3 Lysinoalanine 71 3.6.3.4 Pentosidine 72 3.6.4 Total phenols 74 3.6.5 Raman spectroscopy 74 3.7 Study on inhibition of zinc metalloproteases 75 3.7.1 Inhibition of ACE 75 3.7.1.1 General enzymatic assay 75 3.7.1.2 Quantification 78 3.7.2 Inhibition of MMP-1, -2 and -9 79 3.7.2.1 General enzymatic assay 80 3.7.2.2 Effect of zinc addition on the inhibition of MMP-1 by melanoidins 81 3.7.3 Inhibition of ChC 82 3.7.3.1 General enzymatic assay 82 3.7.3.2 Quantification 84 3.7.4 Calculation of IC50 84 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 86 4.1 Coffee melanoidins 86 4.1.1 Isolation of coffee fractions 86 4.2 Inhibition of zinc-dependent peptidases by coffee fractions 89 4.2.1 Inhibition of MMPs 89 4.2.2 Inhibition of other zinc metalloproteases 98 4.2.3 General considerations 99 4.3 Structural studies on coffee melanoidins 101 4.3.1 Gel permeation chromatography 102 4.3.2 Elemental analysis: C/N ratio 113 4.3.3 Amino acid analysis 116 4.3.4 Total phenolics 120 4.3.5 Correlation between total phenols content and C/N ratio in coffee melanoidins 123 4.3.6 Raman spectroscopy 124 4.4 Derivatization of peptides 129 4.4.1 Nα-carboxyalkylation of peptides by reductive alkylation 130 4.5 Preliminary investigations on the inhibitory potential of Nα-carboxyalkyl derivatives of peptides against metalloproteases 133 4.5.1 Inhibition against ACE 134 4.5.2 Inhibition against other zinc metalloproteases 138 5 SUMMARY 141 6 REFERENCES 145 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS AND CONFERENCE CONTRIBUTIONS 168 AKNOWLEDGMENTS 169 ERKLÄRUNG 170

Milch dient der Versorgung neugeborener Säugetiere mit allen lebensnotwendigen Nährstoffen, wie Proteinen, Fetten, Kohlenhydraten, Vitaminen und Mineralstoffen. Insbesondere die Proteingruppe der Caseine, die in der Milch zum Großteil zu Caseinmicellen assoziiert vorliegen, stellen essentielle Aminosäuren bereit und transportieren große Mengen Calcium und Phosphor (Fox, 2008; Horne, 2008). Neben der Bedeutung als erste Nahrungsquelle für Neugeborene haben sich Milch und Milchprodukte zu einem der wichtigsten Handels- und Verarbeitungsgüter entwickelt. In Deutschland ist vorrangig der Konsum von Kuhmilch verbreitet. Zunehmend wird aber auch die Milch von Büffel, Schaf und Ziege direkt oder verarbeitet konsumiert (Fox, 2008; Töpel, 2016). Dabei unterscheidet sich die Zusammensetzung der Milch zwischen den verschiedenen Tierarten zum Teil beträchtlich. Diese Unterschiede betreffen nicht nur die Anteile der Hauptnährstoffe, sondern auch die Eigenschaften und die Zusammensetzung der Caseinmicellen (CM) (Fox, 2008). Die Eigenschaften und die Stabilität gegenüber einer Calciumkomplexierung wurden für bovine Caseinmicellen in der Literatur bereits ausführlich diskutiert (Horne, 1984; Banon & Hardy, 1992; Needs et al., 2000; O’Connell et al., 2001; Huppertz et al., 2004). Über die Micellen anderer Tierarten lagen zu Beginn der Untersuchungen hingegen kaum Informationen vor. Ein Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es deshalb, die Caseinmicellen aus der Milch der wiederkäuenden Paarhufer Kuh, Büffel, Schaf, Ziege und Kamel und der nicht wiederkäuenden Unpaarhufer Pferd und Esel sowie aus Humanmilch bezüglich Größe, Struktur, Zusammensetzung und Stabilität zu charakterisieren und daraus Erkenntnisse zum tierartspezifischen Micellaufbau abzuleiten. Hierzu wurden die Caseinmicellen mit Hilfe der Ultrazentrifugation von der Molke abgetrennt und in tierartspezifischem, synthetischem Milchultrafiltrate (SMUF) resuspendiert. Untersuchungen der hydrodynamischen Durchmesser mittels dynamischer Lichtstreuung zeigten, dass die CM der Nicht-Wiederkäuer Stute und Esel sowie des Kamels deutlich größer waren als die der Wiederkäuer Kuh, Büffel, Schaf und Ziege, wohingegen sich die humanen CM als die kleinsten zeigten. Mittels Rasterelektronenmikroskopie (REM) konnten aufgrund der beobachteten unterschiedlichen Oberflächenstrukturen für einige Tierarten Hinweise hinsichtlich einer größen- und κ-Casein-abhängigen Ausbildung von κ Casein ‚bunches‘ oder einer ‚hairy layer‘ an der Oberfläche der kolloidalen Partikel erhalten werden. Anhand der Aminosäurezusammensetzung der micellaren Proteine konnte abgeleitet werden, dass bei allen Tierarten vor allem Phosphoserin sowie die hydrophoben Aminosäuren maßgeblich am Aufbau der CM beteiligt sein dürften. Hierbei wurden jedoch tierartspezifische Unterschiede festgestellt. Bei den Wiederkäuern wurde eine besonders starke Assoziation der Caseinmonomere über Phosphoserincluster vermutet, während bei den Nicht-Wiederkäuern und insbesondere bei den humanen CM auch hydrophobe Wechselwirkungen eine entscheidende Rolle spielen. Calcium und anorganischer Phosphor konnten als die bedeutendsten micellaren Salze identifiziert werden, die in besonders hohen Gehalten in den CM von Stute und Esel vorkamen. Humane Micellen wiesen deutlich niedrigere Mineralstoffgehalte auf, weshalb die Bedeutung der elektrostatischen Wechselwirkungen für die Verknüpfung der Caseinmonomere geringer eingeschätzt wurde als bei den weiteren untersuchten Tierarten. In Bezug auf die Stabilität gegenüber einer Calciumkomplexierung mit Ethylenglycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,N\',N\'-tetraessigsäure (EGTA) unterschieden sich die CM der Tiere sehr deutlich voneinander. Instabile Micellen zeichneten sich durch eine starke Abnahme der Trübung, eine Zunahme des extra-micellaren Caseins sowie eine schneller einsetzende Verkleinerung des hydrodynamischen Durchmessers aus. Für die Micellstabilität ergab sich die folgende Reihenfolge: Kuh << Büffel < Ziege < Schaf < Kamel = Stute < Esel < Mensch. Caseinmicellen eignen sich, neben dem natürlichen Transport von Aminosäuren und Mineralstoffen, als Nanotransporter für bioaktive Substanzen wie Vitamin D2 (Semo et al., 2007), β-Carotin (Sáiz-Abajo et al., 2013), Curcumin (Sahu et al., 2008), Triclosan (Roach et al., 2009) oder auch dem antibakteriellen Enzym Lysozym (de Roos et al., 1998; Anema & de Kruif, 2013). Da zu Beginn der Untersuchungen ausschließlich Daten zur Beladung boviner Caseinmicellen mit Hühnereiweißlysozym (HEWL) verfügbar waren, sollte zunächst die Stabilität der tierartspezifischen Micellen und die Effektivität der Beladung mit Lysozym beurteilt werden. Zusätzlich sollte die antibakterielle Wirksamkeit der mit Lysozym beladenen Caseinmicellen verschiedener Säugetiere sowohl in vitro als auch in orientierenden Untersuchungen gegenüber Bakterien erfasst werden. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass die CM aller untersuchten Tierarten mit HEWL beladen werden können. Hinsichtlich der Stabilität der CM sowie der Aufnahmekapazität wurden jedoch tierartspezifische Unterschiede festgestellt. Allgemein konnten die CM aus Wiederkäuer- und aus Humanmilch als stabiler beschrieben werden, wobei die HEWL-Aufnahme bei den CM der Wiederkäuer höher war. Die lytische Enzymaktivität des HEWL in vitro veränderte sich infolge der Micellassoziation für die meisten untersuchten Tierarten im Vergleich zu frei vorliegendem HEWL nicht. Für die antibakterielle Wirksamkeit gegenüber Bacillus subtilis wurden hingegen Unterschiede zwischen den verschiedenen Tierarten beobachtet. Für die HEWL-haltigen CM von Büffel und Ziege ergaben sich die gleichen Wachstumsverzögerungen wie bei freiem HEWL in SMUF. Im Gegensatz dazu wurde die bakteriostatische Wirkung durch die HEWL-Micellen von Kuh, Kamel und Mensch inhibiert, durch die von Schaf, Stute und Esel hingegen verstärkt. Neben der Funktionalisierung der Caseinmicellen durch den Einbau bioaktiver Substanzen, können die Partikel auch chemisch modifiziert werden. Eine Möglichkeit stellt hierbei die Glykierung dar. Glykierungsreaktionen zwischen den Carbonylgruppen reduzierender Zucker und Aminosäureseitenketten wurden für nicht-micellare Caseine in einer Vielzahl an Studien untersucht (Zin El-Din & Aoki, 1993; Morales & van Boekel, 1996; Pellegrino et al., 1999; Lima et al., 2009; Akıllıoğlu & Gökmen, 2014). Über den Einfluss der micellaren Anordnung der Caseine auf die Glykierungsreaktionen war nur wenig bekannt. Erkenntnisse diesbezüglich könnten einen Beitrag zur Aufklärung des Aufbaus der Caseinmicellen leisten. Die Untersuchungen zeigten, dass bei der Erhitzung von micellaren und nicht-micellaren Caseinen für 0 - 4 h bei 100 °C in Gegenwart der reduzierenden Zucker Lactose und Glucose hauptsächlich die frühe Phase der Maillard Reaktion abläuft. Die Bildung der Amadori-Produkte erfolgte dabei in den CM und im nicht micellaren Natrium-Caseinat (NaCas) in gleichem Maße. Hieraus wurde eine ähnliche Zugänglichkeit der reaktiven Aminosäureseitenketten in den micellaren und nicht micellaren Caseinen geschlussfolgert. Signifikante Unterschiede konnten hinsichtlich der Produktbildung der späten Phase der Maillard-Reaktion beobachtet werden. Während Nε-Carboxymethyllysin (CML) im NaCas in höheren Gehalten detektiert wurde, trat in den CM eine verstärkte Pyrralin-Bildung auf. Zudem bewirkte eine Inkubation in Gegenwart von Lactose eine bevorzugte CML-Bildung, wohingegen mit Glucose Pyrralin in höheren Mengen gebildet wurde. Die Maillard-induzierten Proteinquervernetzungsprodukte Glyoxal-Lysin-Dimer und Pentosidin wurden im Vergleich zum zuckerunabhängig gebildeten Lysinoalanin in deutlich geringeren Gehalten erfasst. Hohe Oligomerisierungsgrade zwischen 50 und 84 % zeigten jedoch, dass die Proteinquer-vernetzungen, die im Zuge der Glykierung entstehen, quantitativ von größerer Bedeutung sind. Anhand der Bestimmung der hydrodynamischen Durchmesser und mit Hilfe von REM-Aufnahmen konnte eine weitgehend intra-micellare Proteinquervernetzung abgeleitet werden. Die Ausbildung intra-micellarer Oligomere bewirkte dabei eine höhere Micellstabilität gegenüber einem Calciumentzug durch EGTA. Die vorliegenden Untersuchungen deuten darauf hin, dass die hydrophilen Zuckermoleküle über die von Dalgleish (2011) vorgeschlagenen Wasserkanäle in die CM eindringen und die frühe Phase der Maillard-Reaktion anschließend vor allem in diesen Regionen erfolgt. Die weiteren Phasen der Maillard-Reaktion könnten dann, durch ein tieferes Eindringen der reaktiven Komponenten, zunehmend auch in dehydratisierteren Bereichen ablaufen. Bezüglich des Aufbaus der Caseinmicellen unterstützen die in dieser Arbeit gewonnen Ergebnisse die Vorstellungen des Internal Structure Modells.

New Zealand is the world’s third-largest honey exporter by value behind China and Argentina and honey accounts for up to 80 % of New Zealand’s exports. However, it is only the 16th biggest global supplier by volume. Manuka honey from New Zealand is sold for premium prices and merchandised for its health benefits. Because of its exceptional antibacterial effect, there is a strong market demand and the price for a kilogram of manuka honey has tripled in recent years (Ministry for Primary Industries 2015). When consumers are willing to pay prices up to 200 €/kg manuka honey, the risk of misleading advertisement and intended fraud increases. This thesis aims to further characterize manuka honey and contribute to the development of a manuka honey definition. The first part deals with the antibacterial activity of manuka honey. The effect of manuka honey is mainly due to methylglyoxal, whereas the effect of non-manuka honeys is primarily caused by hydrogen peroxide. The objective is to develop a method to quantify the effect solely due to one of the respective chemical compounds and compare their effectiveness. Finally, an evaluation of the contribution of methylglyoxal and hydrogen peroxide to the inhibitory effect of honey should be given. The second part deals with chemical reactions of carbonyl compounds in honey. Because of the reactive nature of carbonyl compounds, the formation of specific glycation compounds in honey is assumed. Since the carbonyl profile of manuka honey differs remarkably from non-manuka honeys, the reaction products are expected to vary widely. Specific compounds, solely present in manuka honey, could serve as quality control parameters to ensure manuka honey authenticity. The final part deals with the metabolism of food-derived carbonyl compounds. Carbonyl compounds, like methylglyoxal or 3-deoxyglucosone are discussed to be potentially toxic to human tissues. Until now, only little is known about the impact of the diet on the physiological carbonyl-load and the metabolism of carbonyl compounds. With the help of nutrition studies and the analysis of body fluids, the question of metabolic transit of carbonyl compounds shall be addressed. The antibacterial studies showed that bacterial species are affected differently by bioactive compounds present in honey. Methylglyoxal (MGO), which is solely present in manuka honeys and hydrogen peroxide, which is formed in most conventional honeys by glucose oxidase, are strong inhibitors of the growth of S. aureus and E. coli. The strain of P. aeruginosa used for this work was not inhibited by MGO, whereas B. subtilis was not inhibited by hydrogen peroxide. To compare and quantify the effect of MGO and hydrogen peroxide, a mathematic model was created. By comparing the slopes of the linearized dose-response curves, it was found that S. aureus, E. coli and P. aeruginosa were more sensitive to hydrogen peroxide than to MGO. However, the natural amounts of MGO in honey are higher than the formation of hydrogen peroxide. Although most bacteria are more sensitive to hydrogen peroxide, MGO is the predominantly antibacterial compound in honey, because of its higher concentrations compared to hydrogen peroxide formation. The inclusion of manuka honey in α-cyclodextrin had only minor consequences on bioavailability and antibacterial activity. The commercial product “Cyclopower” (α-cyclodextrin with manuka honey) does not enhance the antibacterial activity of manuka honey on S. aureus, E. coli and P. aeruginosa. With the help of the newly developed quantitative model, it was shown that the growth of B. subtilis is synergistically inhibited with cyclopower compared to manuka honey and α-cyclodextrin alone. The study of bacterial enzymes as possible targets for bacterial inhibition with manuka honey revealed that MGO and DHA inhibited jack bean urease, which was used as a model for Helicobacter pylori urease. The concentration of MGO and DHA in manuka honey positively correlated with its urease inhibition. Conventional honeys, which lack MGO and DHA, showed significantly less urease inhibition. Based on the unique presence of MGO, manuka honey has extraordinary effects on bacteria, which might lead to further application to fight the emerging crisis of antibacterial resistance to antibiotics. Until now, there is no consistent definition for the term “genuine manuka honey”. In the present work, an approach based on unique chemical reactions in manuka honey was followed. It was shown that the exceptional high amounts of MGO induced the formation of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (2-AP). In manuka honey containing ≥ 250 mg/kg MGO, the 2-AP concentration was significantly increased compared to conventional honey. Moreover, honey proteins form MGO-derived reactions products, which were studied by measuring the molecular size of honey proteins. Manuka honey proteins significantly shifted to high molecular weights (HMW) with a size above 510 kDa. The amount of HMW protein in non-manuka honey was significantly lower. The cleavage of disulphide bonds led to a decrease of HMW fraction of conventional honeys but not of manuka honeys. It is hypothesized that MGO cross-linking of proteins is mainly responsible for the formation of HMW adducts in manuka honey. The formation of HMW adducts was also shown with fluorescence analysis, whereby manuka honey proteins had higher fluorescence intensities at λex=350 nm and λem=450 nm compared to non-manuka honeys. The artificial addition of MGO and its precursor dihydroxyacetone (DHA) to a non-manuka honey did not lead to an increased fluorescence up to the level of commercial manuka honeys. The MGO-derived modifications of proteins were further studied by quantifying the protein-bound Maillard reaction products N-ε-carboxyethyllysine (CEL) and methylglyoxal-derived hydroimidazolone 1 (MG-H1) after enzymatic hydrolysis of honey proteins and LC-MS/MS analysis. Their amount was significantly higher in manuka compared to conventional honeys and correlated with the MGO content of the honey. Most of the MGO-derived reactions could be simulated by spiking a conventional honey or a low MGO manuka honey with artificial MGO and subsequent storage at elevated temperatures. Higher storage temperatures were associated with a quick increase of 5-hydroxymethylfurfuraldehyd (HMF). The HMF level in honey is used as a quality parameter and should not exceed 40 mg/kg (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2001). High concentrations of HMF may point to a fraudulent addition of MGO and the production of artificial high-price manuka honey products. Taken together, the Maillard reaction in honey could be used to control the natural origin of MGO and DHA. The consumption of honey and especially manuka honey exposes humans to high levels of dietary dicarbonyl compounds like MGO and 3-deoxyglucosone (3-DG). Both compounds were discussed as potential risk factors for the development of age-related diseases. The simulated digestion of manuka honey in the presence of gastric and ileal fluids showed that only 9 % of the initial concentration can be recovered after 8 h. The honey matrix had no stabilising effect on MGO compared to a synthetic MGO solution. In contrast to MGO, the manuka honey compound DHA was stable during all simulated digestion steps. The complexation of MGO with α-cyclodextrin did not enhance the stability of MGO. The metabolic transit of dietary MGO and 3-DG was further studied with an intervention study with healthy volunteers, who collected their daily urine. It was shown that urinary concentrations of 3-DG and its less reactive metabolites 3-deoxyfructose (3-DF) and 2-keto-3-deoxygluconic acid (3-DGA), but not MGO, were influenced by the diet. During the intervention studies, up to 40 % of dietary 3-DG was recovered as the sum of 3-DG, 3-DF and 3-DGA. The metabolite 3-DGA only played a minor role in the metabolism of dietary 3-DG in comparison to 3-DF. The concentrations 3-DF and 3-DGA in plasma only increased after the consumption of dietary 3-DG and not after the uptake of carbohydrate rich meals in general. This led to the conclusion that dietary 3-DG is effectively metabolized to 3-DF extracellularly on the apical site of the intestinal epithelium and is resorbed slowly into the circulation. In contrast, 3-DG, which is formed (intracellularly) postprandial from glucose, bypasses this metabolic system and cannot be metabolized as rapidly to 3-DF. Preliminary results obtained with saliva instead of urine as a bio fluid to study the dietary influence of dicarbonyl compounds, confirmed the hypothesis. Based on the present results, dietary dicarbonyl compounds are effectively metabolized during digestion.

Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde der Einfluss der nichtenzymatischen Glykosylierung auf das Denaturierungsverhalten und die funktionellen Eigenschaften von Molkenproteinen, hier im speziellen die emulgierenden Eigenschaften, untersucht. Nach einer Bestimmung technologisch relevante Glykosylierungsgrade sollten in unterschiedlich glykosylierten Molkenproteinpräparaten das Denaturierungsverhalten sowie die Emulgiereigenschaften in Abhängigkeit vom Glykosylierungsgrad mit unterschiedlichen Methoden bestimmt werden. Der aus praktischer Sicht relevante Einfluss der Glykosylierung auf die sensorischen Eigenschaften wurde einerseits in Molkenproteinlösungen und andererseits in einem komplexen System (Modell-Schmelzkäsezubereitung) erfasst. Schließlich galt es, den Einfluss der Glykosylierung auf die Mikrostruktur und die Festigkeit am Beispiel der Modell- Schmelzkäsezubereitung zu untersuchen und daraus unmittelbare Konsequenzen für die technologische Praxis abzuleiten.

En industrie alimentaire et notamment dans le domaine des produits céréaliers, les ingrédients utilisés et les procédés associés ont des impacts sur les réactions chimiques des constituants ainsi que sur la structure des produits fabriqués. Les réactions peuvent avoir des impacts positifs (arômes, couleur) ou négatifs (développement de composés néoformés potentiellement toxiques). Bien que très étudiées dans des systèmes simplifiés, une meilleure connaissance et maitrise des réactions dans des conditions plus réalistes permettrait de mieux piloter la qualité des produits et de favoriser la balance bénéfices/risques. L’objectif de ce travail était de rendre possible l'étude des réactions dans un milieu solide, certes, simplifié, mais maîtrisé en composition et structure, et fidèle aux procédés de fabrication et à la structure à des produits réels. La génoise a été choisie comme produit de référence.La première étape a consisté à développer un produit modèle constituant une base d’étude de la réactivité. Pour cela, une étude des fonctionnalités apportées par chaque ingrédient à chaque étape du procédé de fabrication a permis d’identifier les dérivés de cellulose comme candidats intéressants pour remplacer les ingrédients réactifs (oeuf, sucre et protéines de la farine). Une étude multiéchelles a permis de mieux comprendre l’impact des principales propriétés apportées par les dérivés de cellulose (viscosité à froid, stabilisation des interfaces, gélification à chaud) sur la structuration du produit. Enfin, le produit modèle a été validé comme étant non-réactif vis-à-vis de la réaction de Maillard et de caramélisation.Dans une seconde étape, des composés réactifs (glucose, leucine) ont été réintroduits dans le produit modèle et un suivi cinétique de marqueurs de la réactivité dans les vapeurs et dans le produit a été réalisé au cours de la cuisson. Ainsi, l’enrichissement du modèle en glucose + leucine a permis de suivre le développement de composés typiques de la réaction de Maillard (aldéhydes de Strecker et pyrazines), qui n’apparaissent pas dans le cas où le produit n’est enrichi qu’en glucose, où seuls les composés issus de la caramélisation ont été identifiés. De plus, la modification des conditions de cuisson (température, convection) a permis de mettre en évidence l’impact des transferts thermiques et du séchage sur les voies réactionnelles. Ces résultats ouvrent ainsi la voie à de futures études cinétiques, couplant expérimentation systématique et modélisation. / In the food industry and notably in the field of cereal products, the type of ingredients used and their associated processes have several effects on the structure of the products and on the chemical reactions occurring during the manufacturing process. These reactions could have positive impacts (aroma, color) as well as negative outcomes (formation of potentially toxic compounds). Although being thoroughly studied in model systems, a better understanding of reactions in more realistic conditions would allow to improve the quality of the products. The aim of this work was to enable the study of chemical reactions occurring in a simplified solid system where the composition and structure were controlled while remaining representative regarding the conditions of the processes and the structure of the real product. Sponge cake was chosen as the product of reference.The first step consisted in developing a model product constituting a basis for studying the reactivity. In this regard, a study on new functionalities brought by each ingredient during each step of the manufacture process allowed to identify the cellulose derivatives as candidates to replace the reactive ingredients (eggs, sugar and wheat flour proteins). A multi-scale study allowed to better understand the impact of the main properties brought by the cellulose derivatives (viscosity at cold temperature, interface stabilization, gelation at high temperature) on the structure of the product. Finally, the model product was validated as a non-reactive media regarding the Maillard reaction and the caramelization.In a second step, reactive compounds (glucose and leucine) were placed in the model product and a kinetic monitoring on reaction markers was set up in the vapors and in the matrix during the baking. Thus, the addition of glucose and leucine in the model allowed to follow the formation of typical compounds coming from the Maillard reaction (Strecker’s aldehyde and pyrazines). These compounds did not developed when the model product was only enriched in glucose, whereas compounds generated by the caramelization reaction were identified. Moreover, changes in baking conditions (temperature, convection) allowed to emphasize the impact of heat transfer and drying on reaction pathways. These results pave the way of future kinetic studies, coupling systemic experiment and reaction modelling.