A novel approach to microfabrication based on stereolithography was presented. This fabrication process is referred to as, ‘Exposure Controlled Projection Lithography’ (ECPL). In the ECPL process, incident radiation, patterned by a dynamic mask, passes through a transparent substrate to cure photopolymer resin. By controlling the amount of exposure, the height field of the cured film can be controlled. An ECPL system was designed and assembled. Factors affecting the accuracy of the ECPL process in fabricating micron shaped features were identified and studied. A real-time in-situ photopolymerization monitoring system was designed and assembled within the ECPL system to identify the sources of variations present in the system. Parts are fabricated from the ECPL process because of polymerization (or cross-linking) of monomer resin using light energy. Photopolymerization is a complex process involving coupling between several phenomena. This process was modeled by utilizing an understanding of the known polymerization reaction kinetics with incorporating the effects of oxygen inhibition and diffusion. A material response model and a simulation tool to estimate the shape of a cured part resulting from photopolymerization was created. This model was used to formulate a process-planning method to estimate the manufacturing process inputs required to cure a part of desired shape and dimensions. The process planning method was validated through simulations and experiments.

In this dissertation, three types of microfabricated solid-state sensors had been designed and developed on silicon wafers, aiming to detect hydrogen gas at elevated temperatures. Based on the material properties and sensing mechanisms, they were operated at 140°C, 500°C, and 300°C. The MOS-capacitor device working at 140°C utilized nickel instead of the widely-used expensive palladium, and the performance remained excellent. For very-high temperature sensing (500°C), the conductivity of the thermally oxidized TiO2 thin film based on the anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) substrate changed 25 times in response to 5 ppm H2 and the response transient times were just a few seconds. For medium-high temperatures (~300°C), very high sensitivity (over 100 times’ increment of current for H2 concentration at 10 ppm) was obtained through the reversible reduction of the Schottky barrier height between the Pt electrodes and the SnO2 nano-clusters. Fabrication approaches of these devices included standard silicon wafer processing, thin film deposition, and photolithography. Materials characterization methods, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), surface profilometry, ellipsometry, and X-ray diffractometry (XRD), were involved in order to investigate the fabricated nano-sized structures. Selectivities of the sensors to gases other than H2 (CO and CH4) were also studied. The first chapter reviews and evaluates the detection methodologies and sensing materials in the current research area of H2 sensors and the devices presented this Ph.D. research were designed with regard to the evaluations.

L'intégration sur puce d'opérations successives d'un protocole plus ou moins complexe d'analyse biologique ou chimique et mettant en jeu la circulation de petits volumes d'échantillons et de réactifs dans des canalisations de taille micrométrique constitue le coeur des technologies microfluidiques. Les technologies de réalisation de micro canalisations sont aujourd'hui bien maîtrisées. Cependant, la manipulation des fluides et l'intégration technologique des éléments de contrôle comme les valves, les actionneurs, les mélangeurs dans les micro canalisations posent des problèmes essentiellement liés aux très faibles dimensionnalités. Des solutions originales et pratiques pour manipuler des volumes très faibles (entre 1nl et 10nl) doivent être développées pour déplacer, mélanger ou séparer ces liquides. Dans ce cadre, nous avons proposé un projet de recherche ANR Blanc (PYRACT) animé par le LAAS et associant des équipes de recherche des laboratoires LCC et IRMCP. Les travaux de thèse s'insérant dans le cadre du projet PYRACT, ont porté sur la conception, la simulation et la réalisation d'un micro actionneur à base de matériau énergétique pour la manipulation de faibles quantités de fluides (10-100nl). L'actionneur, tel que nous l'avons conçu, consiste en une plate-forme chauffante sur laquelle sont déposés en couche très mince un matériau énergétique et une membrane élastique permettant de faire l'étanchéité entre le gaz d'actionnement et le fluide. Le principe de fonctionnement est simple : lorsque le matériau énergétique atteint 225°C, sa décomposition exothermique (333J/g) génère des gaz (N2, H2O, O2) qui augmentent la pression sous la membrane fine élastique (30¼m). La pression ainsi générée et la déformation induite de la membrane élastique permettent d'actionner le fluide dans la micro canalisation. Ce concept simple d'actionnement présente l'avantage d'être compact, intégrable directement dans la canalisation contenant le fluide à actionner, biocompatible, bas c oût et nécessite seulement quelques mW (quelques V) pour générer des surpressions qui peuvent être réglées entre quelques dizaines de kPa et quelques centaines de kPa. Son caractère monocoup le rend adapté aux applications portables et jetables. Tout d'abord, un modèle multi physique a été développé sous COMSOL pour simuler le fonctionnement de l'actionneur intégré dans une micro canalisation. Ensuite, un modèle global de conception a été construit permettant de prédire les performances de l'actionnement (pression, déformation, volume et vitesse du fluide éjecté) en fonction des caractéristiques de l'actionneur et de la puissance électrique d'actionnement. Enfin, deux démonstrateurs ont été fabriqués : un actionneur de 1mm²×100¼m et un de 0.25mm²×100¼m. Un travail important a porté sur l'intégration technologique en utilisant des procédés compatibles MEMS et microfluidique des différents matériaux (énergétique et de structure) sur des surfaces très petites et nécessitant des traitements de surface particuliers. Le principe d'actionnement a été validé.

De par leur excellente résolution spatiale et leurs propriétés particulières, les ultramicroélectrodes (UME) constituent des outils de choix pour l'étude de mécanismes biologiques de sécrétion à l'échelle de la cellule unique. En configuration " synapse semi-artificielle ", du fait de la faible distance qui sépare la cellule émettrice de l'UME, les molécules sont libérées dans un faible volume, induisant alors des concentrations suffisamment élevées pour être détectables par électrochimie. Ainsi, les UME offrent la possibiIité de mesurer des flux, même infimes, de molécules électroactives en temps réel. Cette technique analytique a été utilisée, complétée ou adaptée afin d'étudier deux phénomènes biologiques : l'exocytose vésiculaire et le stress oxydant cellulaire. L'analyse ampérométrique de l'exocytose, mécanisme impliqué dans la communication cellulaire, permet l'étude quantitative de la cinétique de libération des molécules intravésiculaires libérées dans le milieu extracellulaire. L'UME, placée dans le milieu extérieur, n'apporte pas d'information quant au statut des vésicules avant la fusion. Pour compléter ces informations, nous avons développé, par des techniques de microfabrication, un microsystème constitué d'électrodes conductrices et transparentes d'ITO permettant un couplage des détections ampérométrique et optique (microscopie TIRF) pour l'étude de la sécrétion des cellules BON BC21. L'ampérométrie à quatre potentiels constants, utilisée au laboratoire pour la détection des ROS/RNS libérées par les macrophages, cellules du système immunitaire, nécessite un grand nombre d'expériences pour s'affranchir de la variabilité cellulaire et des différences de sensibilité des UME. Afin de réduire considérablement le temps d'expérience, nous avons développé un microsystème constitué de quatre chambres de mesure, chacune contenant un jeu de trois électrodes. Ces quatre chambres permettront, à terme, le suivi et la détection simultanée en temps réel des variations de production de H2O2, ONOO-, NO* et NO2- libérées par une cellule.

Cette thèse s’inscrit dans le cadre d’une cotutelle internationale entre l’institut FEMTO-ST à Besançon en France et l’université de Sherbrooke au Canada. Elle porte sur l’élaboration d’un biocapteur, potentiellement à bas coût, pour la détection de pathogènes dans les secteurs de l’agroalimentaire, de l’environnement et de la biosécurité. Le modèle biologique visé est la bactérie Escherichia coli, dont les souches pathogènes sont responsables, chaque année et partout dans le monde, de plusieurs crises sanitaires liées à une mauvaise gestion des produits de consommation ou des installations de conditionnement ou de traitements de ces produits. L’utilisation de biocapteurs pour une détection rapide, sensible et sélective d’organismes pathogènes répond ainsi aux inquiétudes quant aux risques d’infection pour la population. La structure du capteur consiste en une fine membrane en arséniure de gallium (GaAs) vibrant sur des modes de cisaillement d’épaisseur générés par champ électrique latéral via les propriétés piézoélectriques du matériau. Nous montrons dans ce travail que le biocapteur offre également des possibilités de microfabrication, de biofonctionnalisation et de régénération intéressantes pour la conception d’un dispositif à bas coût. Le transducteur a été réalisé via des technologies de microfabrication utilisées en salle blanche avec une mise en parallèle des méthodes d’usinage par voie chimique et par plasma, l’objectif étant d’obtenir des membranes minces, planes et avec un état de surface de haute qualité. Une interface fluidique a été mise au point de façon à approvisionner de manière homogène le capteur en fluide. Par ailleurs, nos études se sont portées sur la fonctionnalisation biochimique de l’interface de bioreconnaissance sur l’arséniure de gallium et sa caractérisation fine par les techniques de spectroscopie infrarouge à transformée de Fourier (FTIR). Les résultats de cette étude ont permis de progresser sur la compréhension fondamentale du phénomène d’auto-assemblage de molécules sur GaAs. Un effort particulier a été mis en œuvre pour développer des biointerfaces de haute densité offrant une immobilisation optimale des immunorécepteurs biologiques. Parmi les différentes méthodes de régénération de la biointerface, le procédé de photo-oxydation UV en milieu liquide a démontré un fort potentiel pour des applications de capteurs réutilisables. Enfin, le transducteur a été caractérisé électriquement sous différents environnements. L’impact sur la réponse du résonateur des paramètres électriques, mécaniques et thermiques de ces milieux a été évalué afin de simuler le comportement du dispositif en condition réelle. / Abstract : This PhD thesis was realized in the context of a cotutelle program between FEMTO-ST institute in France and the University of Sherbrooke in Canada. The thesis addresses the development of a potentially low cost sensor dedicated for detection of pathogens in food industry processing, environment and biosafety sectors. Such a sensor could serve detection of Escherichia coli bacteria whose pathogenic strains are the source of foodborne illnesses encountered worldwide every year. Hence, biosensor devices are needed for a rapid, sensitive and selective detection of pathogens to avert, as soon as possible, any sources of contamination and prevent outbreak risks. The design of the sensor consists of a resonant membrane fabricated in gallium arsenide (GaAs) crystal that operates at shear modes of bulk acoustic waves generated by lateral field excitation. In addition to the attractive piezoelectric properties, as shown in this work, fabrication of a GaAs-based biosensor benefits from a well-developed technology of microfabrication of GaAs, as well as biofunctionalization and the possibility of regeneration that should result in cost savings of used devices. The transducer element was fabricated by using typical clean room microfabrication techniques. Plasma and wet etching were investigated and compared for achieving thin membranes with high quality surface morphology. At the same time, we designed and fabricated fluidic elements that allowed the construction of a flow cell chamber integrated in the sensor. Extensive research was carried out with a Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) diagnostic tool to determine optimum conditions for biofunctionalization of the GaAs surface. This activity allowed to advance the fundamental knowledge of self-assembly formation and, consequently, fabrication of high density biointerfaces for efficient immobilization of selected bioreceptors. Among different biochip regeneration methods, it has been demonstrated that liquid UV photooxidation (liquid-UVPO) has a great potential to deliver attractive surfaces for re-usable biochips. Finally, operation of the transducer device was evaluated in air environment and in various liquid media, simulating real conditions for detection.

Surfaces with static contact angle greater than 150 degrees are typically classified as superhydrophobic. Such coatings have been inspired by the lotus leaf. As water flows over a superhydrophobic surface, "slip effect" is produced resulting in a reduction in the skin-friction drag exerted on the surface. Slip flow is caused by the entrapment of a layer of air between water and the surface. Superhydrophobicity could be utilized to design surfaces for applications such as energy conservation, noise reduction, laminar-to-turbulent-transition delay, and mixing enhancement. A popular method of manufacturing a superhydrophobic surface is microfabrication in which well-designed microgrooves and/or poles are placed on a surface in a regular configuration. This method is a costly process and cannot easily be applied to large-scale objects with arbitrary shapes. In this work, we fabricated and characterized simpler low-cost superhydrophobic coatings based on controlling the volume of entrapped air in order to enhance durability (longevity) and the properties of the coating bringing the technology closer to large-scale submerged bodies such as submarines and ships. Two different low-cost fabricating techniques have been utilized: (i) random deposition of hydrophobic aerogel microparticles; and (ii) deposition of hydrophobic polymer micro- and nanofibers using DC-biased AC-electrospinning. The present study is aimed at providing experimental, numerical, and analytical models to characterize the superhydrophobicity and longevity of the coatings depending on the morphology of the surfaces and the concentration of the hydrophobic materials. The surface's micro/nanostructure were observed by field emission scanning electron microscopy. The degree of hydrophobicity of the coatings was estimated using drag-reduction and contact-angle measurements using a rheometer and a goniometer respectively. Furthermore, We have advanced and calibrated a novel optical technique to noninvasively measure the longevity of submerged superhydrophobic coatings subjected to different environmental conditions. We have also modeled the performance of superhydrophobic surfaces comprised of randomly distributed roughness. The numerical simulations are aimed at improving our understanding of the drag-reduction effect and the stability of the air–water interface against pressure in terms of the microstructure parameters. Moreover, we have experimentally characterized the terminal pressure (i.e. the pressure at which the air–water interface completely fails) of aerogel coatings with different morphologies.

L'étude porte sur la réalisation d'un support plan fonctionnalisé et structuré pour l’immobilisation d’un nombre limité de biomolécules sondes telles que des carbohydrates, des protéines, des anticorps. Les supports sont des lames commerciales silanisées avec un amino-silane sur les deux faces. Des composés fluorescents porteurs de fonctions aldéhyde ou acide ont été utilisés comme modèles pour valider les greffages covalents sur ces supports via une liaison imine ou amide respectivement. Pour localiser les greffages, des puits en polymère de géométrie contrôlée à base de résine SU-8 ont été directement fabriqués sur la surface par un procédé de stéréolithographie. Le greffage de deux fluorophores acides a été réalisé simultanément dans différents puits sur un même support. La localisation des réactions a été caractérisée par spectroscopie et/ou microscopie de fluorescence. Pour permettre la fixation de composés porteurs d’une ou plusieurs fonctions aldéhyde, tels que des anticorps après oxydation des carbohydrates présents sur leur fragment Fc, un bras espaceur de type polyoxyéthylène terminé par une fonction aminooxy ou hydrazide a été synthétisé directement sur la surface des supports. / This work deals with manufacturing functionalized and patterned plane substrates to immobilize a few biological components like carbohydrates, proteins or antibodies. The substrates are commercial glass microscope slides silanized with an amino linker on the two sides. Covalent binding on such substrates has been successfully tested using fluorophores as models with carboxylic acid or aldehydic function to afford respectively amide or imine bond with the amino functions of the support. To localize chemical graftings, polymeric regular and geometrically controlled wells were manufactured from SU-8 photoresist directly on the glass support, applying stereolithography process. Grafting of two fluorophores with carboxylic functions activated by N-hydroxysuccinimide was led simultaneously inside polymeric wells on a same substrate. Localized bindings were characterized by fluorescence spectroscopy and/or microscopy. In order to enable covalent attachment through a stable chemical linkage of aldehydic components, like antibodies after oxidation of their Fc fragment, aminooxy and hydrazide terminated polyoxyethylene spacers were directly synthesized on substrates surface

Este trabalho de doutorado apresenta o desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias para fabricação de microsistemas analíticos e detecção eletroquímica. Primeiramente, a poliuretana elastomérica, derivada de uma fonte renovável, o óleo de mamona, foi utilizada como um novo e alternativo material para fabricação de microdispositivos. Foram avaliadas as características físicas dos microcanais formados por moldagem, a compatibilidade química com solventes e eletrólitos, as características de superfície através dos ângulos de contato, o EOF em diferentes pHs e a performance analítica em experimentos de eletroforese com detecção eletroquímica. A segunda parte do trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento de um método para a determinação simultânea de azo-corantes comumente usados na indústria alimentícia. Amaranto, amarelo crepúsculo FCF, amarelo sólido AB, ponceu 4R e vermelho 2G, foram separados e quantificados através de eletroforese em microdispositivos com detecção eletroquímica. Foram estudados e otimizados vários parâmetros que influenciaram a separação eletroforética e detecção eletroquímica, em experimentos realizados usando microdispositivos de vidro e eletrodo de trabalho de carbono vítreo. Finalmente, a terceira parte desse trabalho apresenta o uso das propriedades magnéticas e eletrocatalíticas de nanofios de níquel no desenvolvimento de um detector adaptativo magneticamente modulável para eletroforese em microdispositivos. / The development of microfluidic analytical systems has witnessed an explosive growth during the last 15 years. Particular attention has been given to microchip electrophoresis because of their fast and efficient separation capabilities. Electrochemistry detection offers considerable promise for such microfluidic systems, with features that include remarkable sensitivity, inherent miniaturization and portability, low cost, and high compatibility with microfabrication technologies. This thesis shows the development of new fabrication technologies for miniaturized analytical systems with electrochemical detection and it is presented in four chapters, Chapter I shows an introductory view of the main aspects related to miniaturization of analytical systems and amperometric detection configurations commonly coupled to microchip electrophoresis. In Chapter II, the use of elastomeric polyurethane (PU), derived from castor oil (CO) biosource, as a new material for fabrication of microfluidic devices by rapid prototyping is presented. Including the irreversible sealing step, PU microchips were fabricated in less than 1 h by casting PU resin directly on the positive high-relief molds fabricated by standard photolithography and nickel electrodeposition. Physical characterization of microchannels was performed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and profilometry. Polymer surface was characterized using contact angle measurements and the results showed that the hydrophilicity of the PU surface increases after oxygen plasma treatment. The polymer surface demonstrated the capability of generating an electroosmotic flow (EOF) of 2.6 × 10-4 cm2 V-1 s-1 at pH 7 in the cathode direction, which was characterized by current monitoring method at different pH values. The compatibility of PU with a wide range of solvents and electrolytes was tested by determining its degree of swelling over a 24 h period of contact. The performance of microfluidic systems fabricated using this new material was evaluated by fabricating miniaturized capillary electrophoresis systems. We used catecholamines as model analytes that were separated in aqueous solutions and detected with end-channel amperometric detection. In Chapter III, a method based on microchip electrophoresis with electrochemical detection has been developed for the simultaneous determination of Yellow AB, Red 2G, Sunset Yellow, Ponceu 4R, and Amaranth which are azo-dyes frequently added to foodstuffs. Factors affecting both separation and detection processes were examined and optimized, with best performance achieved by using a 10 mM phosphate buffer (pH 11) as running buffer and applying a voltage of 2500 V both in the separation and in the electrokinetic injection (duration 4 s). Under these optimal conditions, the target dye analytes could be separated and detected within 300 s by applying a detection potential of -1,0 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) to the glassy carbon (GC) working electrode. The recorded peaks were characterized by a good repeatability (RSD = 1,8 - 3,2%), high sensitivity, and a wide linear range. Detection limits of 3.8, 3.4, 3.6, 9.1, 15.1 ?M were obtained for Yellow AB, Red 2G, Sunset Yellow, Ponceu 4R, and Amaranth, respectively. Fast, sensitive, and selective response makes the new microchip protocol very attractive for the quantitative analysis of commercial soft drinks and candies Finally, in Chapter IV, we demonstrate for the first time the use of adaptive functional nickel nanowires for switching on demand operation of microfluidic devices. Controlled reversible magnetic positioning and orientation of these nanowires at the microchannel outlet offers modulation of the detection and separation processes, respectively. The former facilitates switching between active and passive detection states to allow the microchip to be periodically activated to perform a measurement and reset it to the passive (\"off\") state between measurements. Fine magnetic tuning of the separation process (post channel broadening of the analyte zone) is achieved by reversibly modulating the nanowire orientation (i.e., detector alignment) at the channel outlet. The concept can be extended to other microchip functions and stimuli-responsive materials and holds great promise for regulating the operation of microfluidic devices in reaction to specific needs or unforeseen scenarios.

O presente trabalho teve como foco o desenvolvimento de um software para a simulação de processos de microfabricação em substrato e de microfabricação em superfície baseado em autômatos celulares, o simMEMS. Além disso, visando a futura incorporação de ferramentas para análise das estruturas geradas pelo programa, um módulo com funcionalidades básicas para a análise mecânica de estruturas também foi desenvolvido. No que tange à microfabricação em superfície, o software desenvolvido permite simular a corrosão anisotrópica úmida do Si em KOH e deep reactive ion etching (DRIE). O simulador de corrosão úmida utiliza um autômato celular conhecido como BCA. O simulador de DRIE usa um autômato próprio. Para a simulação dos processos de microfabricação em superfície o software fornece quatro processos: deposição de filmes, corrosão de filmes, fotolitografia e planarização. Para corrosão e deposição de filmes, diversos autômatos celulares da literatura foram analisados e os resultados dessas análises é aqui apresentado. Todos os simuladores, tanto de microfabricação em superfície como em substrato, podem ser utilizados em conjunto. Isso torna o software bastante útil e capaz de simular a fabricação de um grande número de dispositivos. / The main goal of this project is the development of a software capable of simulating both surface and bulk micromachining based on a cellular automata approach. This software has been called simMEMS. In order to enable future versions of the software to also be able to analyze the structures created by the software, a module capable of running a mechanical analysis through the finite element method is also developed. simMEMS allows the user to simulate two bulk micromachining processes: wet anisotropic KOH etching and deep reactive ion etching DRIE. The wet etching simulator uses a cellular automaton known as BCA. The DRIE simulator uses an automaton developed during this project. The surface micromachining simulator allows the user to simulate four types of processes: photolithography, film deposition, film etching and substrate planarization. Several automata for the deposition and etching of films are studied and the results of this study are presented here. All processes, be they for surface or bulk micromachining, can be used on the same substrate to simulate the entire fabrication process for a large array of devices. This makes simMEMS a very useful software.

The production of magnetic materials is of great interest for use in the micro-fabrication industry. In particular, Permalloy (Ni80Fe20) is used in the production of micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) due to its favourable magnetic properties (high relative permeability, low coercivity and high magnetic saturation). This leads to applications in devices such as inductors, transformers and micro-actuators. The electrodeposition of NiFe is also of fundamental electrochemical interest, as there is anomalous thermodynamic behaviour, with the less noble (iron) metal depositing preferentially to the more noble (nickel) metal. To enable consistent alloy deposition nickel and nickel-iron baths are currently almost exclusively based on boric acid. Boric acid has an important role in the deposition of NiFe films but its role(s) in the electro-deposition mechanism is (are) not wholly understood. Recently (2011) boric acid has been identified as a “substance of very high concern” based on the criteria established by EU chemical regulation, REACH. In anticipation of increased regulation an alternative was sought to provide a benign alternative to boric acid in the NiFe plating bath suitable for use in micro-fabrication. Initial work was performed to benchmark the performance of existing boric acid based electro-deposition baths. Cyclic voltammetry was performed, which demonstrated the deposition of nickel and nickel-iron from boric acid baths. Coulombic efficiencies up to 93 % were measured for the deposition of nickel using the electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) on platinum electrodes. For nickel-iron deposition control of the film composition was demonstrated on copper electrodes through varying the iron (II) concentration, current density and temperature. A citrate bath for the deposition of nickel-iron was then developed and characterised. Cyclic voltammetry was performed in these citrate baths demonstrating the deposition of nickel and nickel-iron. Optimal conditions for depositing Ni80Fe20 were demonstrated to be an elevated temperature (60 °C) with a current density of 20 mA cm-2 and a pH of 3. Using the EQCM the efficiency for nickel deposition was measured to be > 80 %. The effects of sodium saccharin and sodium dodecyl sulfate as additives were investigated; these were shown to influence morphology but not the coulombic efficiency. Decreasing the pH was shown to lower the efficiency of nickel deposition from the citrate bath. Comparisons of key properties were made between NiFe films deposited from a boric acid bath and the citrate bath developed in this work. Test structures were used to compare the strain in the films; no significant difference was found. For 2.2 μm thick Ni80Fe20 films the sheet resistance was measured using Greek cross structures as 0.078 ± 0.004 Ω/square for films deposited from the boric acid bath and 0.090 ± 0.006 Ω/square from the citrate bath. The magnetic saturation, Ms, was measured as 895 ± 66 emu cm-3 for deposits from the boric acid bath and 923 ± 111 emu cm-3 from the citrate bath. These again show no significant difference in these values within experimental error. Coercivities for these films were measured to be between 20 and 120 A m-1. In combination, this work demonstrates the development and characterisation of a new citrate based electrodeposition bath for nickel and nickel-iron. Similar chemical, electrical, mechanical and magnetic properties were found from films deposited from both baths, thus demonstrating the suitability of the citrate bath for the deposition of nickel-iron films in microfabrication.