Water scarcity is a global concern that impacts many developing countries, forcing people to depend on unclean water sources for domestic, agricultural, and industrial needs. Wastewater is an alternative water source that contains nutrients needed for crop growth. Wastewater reuse for agriculture can cause public health problems because of human exposure to pathogens. Pathogen monitoring is essential to evaluate the compliance of wastewater with established World Health Organization (WHO) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) wastewater reuse guidelines. Indicator organisms are commonly used to detect pathogens in water and wastewater because they are quick and easy to measure, non-pathogenic, and have simple and inexpensive methods of detection. The objective of this research was to develop a modified double agar layer assay method that can be conducted in the field to quantify bacteriophage to assess the quality of wastewater for agricultural reuse. Results from the modified double agar layer assay were used to investigate the potential of somatic coliphage as an indicator organism for assessing the potential presence of enteric viruses in developing world treated wastewater, and to use the criteria of a good indicator organism to compare the potential of two commonly used indicator organisms, somatic coliphage and fecal coliforms, as an indicator of enteric viruses in wastewater. A modified EPA double agar layer method was developed and deployed in a developing world rural community to effectively quantify the concentration of somatic coliphage in a community managed wastewater treatment system composed of a Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactor followed by two maturation lagoons. The modified method served as a good indicator of enteric viruses in the water. Somatic coliphages were easily detected and quantified in the field setting using a modified double agar layer method. Somatic coliphage was found to be a potential indicator for enteric viruses rather than fecal coliforms because of their similarity in characteristics and resistances to wastewater treatment. The concentration of somatic coliphage was only reduced by 1.05 log units across the two series maturation lagoon system. Previous literature suggested removal would range from 2.1 to 4.6 log units. Influent wastewater (previously treated by an UASB reactor) had a concentration of 4.38 E+06 PFU/ 100 mL (standard deviation = ±3.7E+06, n = 9) and the treated effluent contained 3.90 E+05 PFU/100 mL (standard deviation = ± 4.5E+05, n = 8) of somatic coliphages. Results suggest that somatic coliphage is a good potential indicator for enteric viruses in wastewater but further research needs to be done.

The purpose of this research is to study how the UNDP offices in Stockholm and New York are using Facebook to set the agenda regarding the Millennium Development Goals, but also how the offices are communicating and presenting the goals towards the public. The research is based on publications from the two Facebook groups “millenniemålen – åtta mål för en bättre värld” and “United Nations Development Programme – UNDP” published between November 2011 until April 2012. The publications were categorized and analyzed using content analysis, a method that allows categorization of data which enables me to compare the two offices publications rate but also the amount of publications according to which MDG to be in focus. Text analysis of 24 publications allowed me to detect a pattern as well as analysis the two way communication occurring. The text analysis provides an understanding of the how the organizations are working with setting the agenda of the Millennium Development Goals, but also how a relationship is created through communication. The theoretical standpoint for the thesis draws on agenda-setting, strategic communication and Public Relations, also referred to as PR, as the two offices are working with awareness towards the public - a work that need a creation of relationship to the audience. This study shows that the two offices are communicating the Millennium Development Goals differently towards the public, with different results. The New York office are interacting with its followers on Facebook, directing the readers to engage in the set topics through questions and statements and creating dialogues organization to reader but also reader to reader. The UNDP Stockholm is using Facebook as a gateway to their webpage, where information is presented as a news article with little or none chance for the reader to comply. The setting of the agenda is done through the publications, but the publications lack the tools showing if the agenda have been embraced by the readers. / Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka hur UNDP kontoren i Stockholm och New York använder Facebook för att sätta agendan på millenniemålen, men även visa hur kontoren kommunicerar och presenterar målen till besökarna/följarna av sidorna. Undersökningen är baserad på publikationer gjorda på de två kontorens Facebook sidor “millenniemålen – åtta mål för en bättre värld” och “United Nations Development Programme – UNDP” under tidsperioden november 2011 till april 2012. Publikationerna blev kategoriserade och analyserade med hjälp av innehållsanalys, en metod som genom sin kategoriseringsprocess möjliggör jämförelse mellan de två kontorens sätt att sätta agendan och arbeta med publiken, men även nödvändig information som millenniemål i fokus i enskilda publikationer. Text analys applicerades på 24 publikationer för att mer djupgående förstå hur de två kontoren jobbar för att skapa dialog samt en relation till läsarna genom den satta agendan. Hur UNDP kontoren adresserar läsarna samt överbyggande teman för texterna blev synliga genom denna analys metod. Som teoretisk grund använder jag ”agenda-setting”, strategisk kommunikation samt Public Relations, också refererad till som PR. Båda kontoren har till uppgift att uppmärksamma allmänheten på UNDPs agenda, en uppgift som innebär relationsskapande till sin publik. Resultatet visar att de två kontoren skiljer sig åt när det gäller att kommunicera millenniemålen. New York kontorets interagerande med sin publik genom Facebook, där de skapar dialog kring ett satt ämne mellan organisationen och publiken, men även mellan publiken själv, visar på en fungerande strategi att skapa intresse kring målen. Interaktionen visar även att publiken engagerar sig i de publikationerna som blivit gjorda, med andra ord den agendan som blivit satt. UNDP Stockholm använder Facebook som en ”gateway” till sin hemsida, där informationen blir presenterad som en nyhetsartikel med få inbjudningar till dialog eller chans att respondera . Även om agendan är tydlig i texterna, finns det inga bevis på att läsarna är mottagliga för den.

Problemområde Användningen av digitala sociala nätverk har under de senaste åren ökat och Facebook är det nätverk med flest anhängare över hela världen. Statistik tyder på att användningen av sociala medier och Internet är en väsentlig komponent i den svenska befolkningens vardag, speciellt bland den yngre generationen. Millenniegenerationens användning av sociala medier kan betraktas som en förutsägelse över hur framtida generationers konsumentbeteende kommer att se ut och är därmed av stor relevans för marknadsförare för att hålla sig uppdaterade kring denna generation. Företagens största utmaning idag är att skapa en god kundrelation via de sociala medierna. För att bättre förstå konsumenters beteenden behövs vidare forskning i ämnet, vilket har mynnat ut i studiens problemformulering: – Hur uppfattas CRM-aktiviteter via Facebook av den svenska millenniegenerationen?   Teoretisk ansats Den teoretiska ansatsen har delats in i fyra delar; relationsmarknadsföring och CRM,  sociala medier, marknadsföring via sociala medier och Facebook samt millenniegenerationen och segmentering. Relationsmarknadsföring är strategier som företag använder för att attrahera, behålla och förbättra kundrelationer. Det består av tre grundpelare; relationer, nätverk och interaktion. Kärnan i ett företags marknadsföring bör vara att upprätthålla sina relationer. De strategier, processer och värderingar som företag implementerar i sin verksamhet för att hantera sina kundrelationer kan kallas för CRM (Customer Relationship Management). CRM kan beskrivas som företagets strategiska relationsmarknadsföring.  Vidare kan CRM vidareutvecklas till att även omfatta aktiviteter på sociala nätverksplatser och kallas då SCRM (Social Customer Relationship Management). Den önskvärda reaktionen på CRM-aktiviteter via sociala medier är Word-of-Web, vilket kan beskrivas som personlig kommunikation om produkter, tjänster eller företag mellan konsumenter. W-o-W kan även beskrivas som förtjänad mediekommunikation och har som mål att generera positiv feedback.               Metod Studien har antagit en deduktiv ansats. Vidare har en kvantitativ metod tillämpats för att på bästa sätt besvara problemformuleringen. Primärdatan samlades in genom en standardiserad och Internetbaserad enkätundersökning som besvarades av 488 respondenter. Den insamlade datan analyserades i statistikprogrammet SPSS där signifikans, median-, medel- och typvärde samt andra relevanta värden togs fram.   Slutsats/resultat Slutsatserna är av relevans för handelsföretag, då det är viktigt för företag att existera på Facebook för att erbjuda konsumenter möjligheten att skapa en relation. W-o-W är den önskvärda reaktionen på CRM-aktiviteter, men det är svårtriggade reaktioner. Millennier är aktiva användare av Facebook, men passiva observatörer. De vill hellre ta del av andras publikationer än att själva aktivt publicera socialt mediainnehåll. Således är det viktigt för företag att vara aktiva på nätverket, men de kan inte räkna med önskvärd respons. Värdet att finnas på Facebook är större för företag än för konsumenten, även om millennier anser att det är positivt att företag bedriver aktivitet på Facebook. Resultaten är användbara och tillämpliga för alla typer av branscher och bidrar med ny information kring millenniegenerationens konsumentbeteende.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / The theme of this thesis - "INEQUALITY, POVERTY AND GOVERNANCE: AN AGENDA FOR EAST TIMOR" - stems from an interest to assess the influence of key-actors - NGOs, national governments and the United Nations System - in policy development, in developing countries that emerge from serious conflicts; in particular we search for solutions to deal with the problem of how to evaluate governance, policies and the development path in countries without reliable and structured data. This research animes to contribute to the debate on the influence of NGOs, national governments and the United Nations System on issues concerning governance, sustainable development and environment issues in developing countries that emerge from conflict featuring unconsolidated democracies; We analysed the case of East Timor, between 1999 and 2012, on issues related to social, gender and income inequality and a variety of global issues like climate change and poverty levels, based on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The theoretical and methodological basis of this study was Melucci (1991). Notwithstanding this study is stakeholder-oriented based on inter- and transdisciplinary research, on multi-level and participatory governance theories and political philosophy, with focus on horizontal and environmental policy integration and processes as well as questions of legitimacy, accountability and sustainability based on the analysis of secondary sources (text, numbers, images, etc.) and collection of primary empirical data in the field, in 2012, for policy analysis in different contexts - a necessary step due to the fragility and often lack of reliable data and audited information. We analysed official documents and reports such key UN-resolutions, the Timor-Leste National Development Plan (NDP), the Millennium Development Goals Reports (MDGs), Human Development Reports (HDR), Evolution of the Human Development Index (HDI), scientific articles and several technical reports released by development agencies such as ABD, FAO, UNDP and others. We observed a huge discrepancy between rhetoric and practice concerning the key-actors participation as well as noticeable flaws in policy conduction at various levels. Transparency levels are incredibly low and it permeates all levels of the government. The impression one gets is that there was an interest in promoting the pacification process to enable foreign companies to extract oil at low risk, while issues related to governance, accountability and transparency were neglected. It is argued that such challenges were less a matter of rules and regulations then basic approaches, attitudes and power relations. It is possible that these key-actors, in general, did not succeed in find ways to change their approach during the years of stabilization; with little or no progress on issues related to human development, poverty and inequality reduction. Instead of fostering the development of a viable and autonomous civil society its results have demonstrated the depletion of a model of development that on one hand was efficient on the pacification process while on the other hand have failed in the promotion of opportunities, governance and sustainable development. Finally, we conclude that socioeconomic peculiarities and policies adopted in developing countries that emerge from serious conflicts should not be seeing as specific procedural and institutional factors replicable from stabilized societies, it is necessary to draw up a better database and a set of analysis tools based on the peculiar conditions of developing countries emerging from different forms of conflict focusing on mechanisms that promote good governance, transparency and accountability. As final considerations, to support Timor-Lesteâs sustainable development policies, we point out the need to relativize the implementation of criteria considered necessary for good governance, establish a hierarchy over time and across priorities in development programs and projects, which must be guided by the specificities of particular contexts. / O tema desta tese - "Desigualdade, pobreza e governanÃa: uma agenda para Timor-Leste" - decorre do interesse em avaliar a influÃncia de atores-chave - ONGs, governos nacionais e do Sistema das NaÃÃes Unidas - no desenvolvimento de polÃticas, em paÃses em desenvolvimento que emergem de conflitos graves; em particular, procurar soluÃÃes para lidar com o problema de como avaliar polÃticas de governanÃa, e trajetÃrias de desenvolvimento em paÃses sem base de dados confiÃveis e estruturados. Esta pesquisa buscou contribuir para o debate sobre a influÃncia das ONGs, governos nacionais e do Sistema das NaÃÃes Unidas sobre questÃes relacionadas a governanÃa, desenvolvimento sustentÃvel e questÃes ambientais em paÃses em desenvolvimento que emergem de conflitos configurando democracias nÃo-consolidadas; Analisamos o caso de Timor-Leste entre 1999 e 2012 com relaÃÃo a questÃes socioeconÃmicas, desigualdade de gÃnero de renda e uma variedade de questÃes globais como mudanÃas climÃticas e nÃveis de pobreza, com base nos Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do MilÃnio (ODM). A base teÃrica e metodolÃgica deste estudo foi Melucci (1991). Entretanto, este estudo à "stakeholder-orientado", baseado em investigaÃÃo interdisciplinar e transdisciplinar, em multi-nÃvel com base em teorias de governanÃa participativa e filosofia polÃtica, com foco na integraÃÃo horizontal de processos de ordem polÃtica e ambiental, bem como questÃes de legitimidade, prestaÃÃo de contas e sustentabilidade com base na anÃlise de fontes secundÃrias (texto, nÃmeros, imagens, etc.) e de recolha de dados empÃricos primÃrias no campo em Timor-Leste, em 2012, para a anÃlise de polÃticas em diferentes contextos - um passo necessÃrio devido à fragilidade e muitas vezes a falta de dados confiÃveis e informaÃÃes auditadas. Foram analisados documentos oficiais e relatÃrios-chaves baseados em resoluÃÃes da ONU, o Plano de Timor-Leste Desenvolvimento Nacional (PDN), os RelatÃrios sobre os Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do MilÃnio (ODM), RelatÃrios de Desenvolvimento Humano (HDR), EvoluÃÃo do Ãndice de Desenvolvimento Humano (IDH), artigos cientÃficos e vÃrios relatÃrios tÃcnicos divulgados por agÃncias de desenvolvimento, como a ABD, FAO, PNUD e outros. Foi observado uma enorme discrepÃncia entre a retÃrica e a prÃtica relativa à participaÃÃo atores-chave, bem como falhas visÃveis na conduÃÃo polÃtica em vÃrios nÃveis. Os nÃveis de transparÃncia sÃo reduzidos e, isso permeia todas as Ãreas do governo. A impressÃo que se tem à que houve interesse em promover o processo de pacificaÃÃo para permitir que as companhias estrangeiras pudessem extrair petrÃleo com baixo risco, enquanto que as questÃes relacionadas à governanÃa, à responsabilidade e à transparÃncia foram negligenciadas. Argumenta-se que esses desafios foram menos uma questÃo de regras e regulamentos do que abordagens bÃsicas, atitudes e relaÃÃes de poder. à possÃvel que estes atores-chave, em geral, nÃo tenham conseguido mudar suas abordagens durante os anos de estabilizaÃÃo, com rarefeito progresso em questÃes relacionadas com o desenvolvimento humano, e a reduÃÃo da pobreza e desigualdade. Ao invÃs de fomentar o desenvolvimento de uma sociedade civil viÃvel e autÃnoma, os resultados tÃm demonstrado o esgotamento de um modelo de desenvolvimento que, se por um lado eficiente na pacificaÃÃo falhou na promoÃÃo de oportunidades, governanÃa e desenvolvimento sustentÃvel. Por fim, concluÃmos que peculiaridades socioeconÃmicas e polÃticas adotadas em paÃses em desenvolvimento, que emergem de conflitos graves, nÃo devem ser vistas como fatores processuais e institucionais replicÃveis de sociedades estabilizadas, à necessÃrio elaborar uma melhor base de dados e um conjunto de ferramentas de anÃlise com base nas condiÃÃes peculiares dos paÃses em desenvolvimento que emergem de diferentes formas de conflito com foco em mecanismos que promovam a boa governanÃa, transparÃncia e prestaÃÃo de contas. Como consideraÃÃes finais, para apoiar polÃticas de desenvolvimento sustentÃvel em Timor-Leste e em paÃses similares, destacamos a necessidade de relativizar a implementaÃÃo de critÃrios considerados necessÃrios para a boa governanÃa, estabelecer uma hierarquia ao longo do tempo, em funÃÃo das prioridades, em programas e projetos de desenvolvimento, que devem ser guiados pelas especificidades de contextos particulares.

O enfrentamento da pobreza e a promoção do desenvolvimento humano são desafios muito persistentes e arraigados em nossa sociedade, cujas consequências afetam a vida de milhões de pessoas. Diante desse cenário, derivados das discussões da Cúpula do Milênio de 2000, realizada pela Organização das Nações Unidas (ONU), foram elaborados os Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio (ODM). Nesse percurso, um dos grandes esforços do Brasil para combater a pobreza e a desigualdade social, foi a implementação do Programa Bolsa Família (PBF) em 2003. Presente em todos os municípios brasileiros, o Bolsa Família é considerado o maior programa de transferência de renda com acompanhamento na área de saúde, educação e assistência social do mundo em desenvolvimento. Em, 2016, com um custo de 0,45% do Produto Interno Bruto (PIB), o programa, atendeu mais de 13,5 milhões de famílias, ou seja, mais de 46,5 milhões de brasileiros, que representaram aproximadamente 23% da população total do país. Devido sua relevância social, o objetivo desse trabalho foi mensurar a eficiência das Unidades Federativas brasileiras em converter investimentos no Programa Bolsa Família e PIB per capita, em avanços no cumprimento dos Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio, assim como identificar os determinantes da eficiência. Para isso, foram elaborados 6 modelos de eficiência, adequados ao contexto brasileiro, correspondentes aos propósitos dos seis primeiros Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio: 1) erradicar a extrema pobreza e fome, 2) atingir o ensino primário universal, 3) promover a igualdade entre os sexos e a autonomia das mulheres, 4) reduzir a mortalidade infantil, 5) melhorar a saúde materna, 6) combater HIV/AIDS, malária e outras doenças. Além disso, elaborou-se um modelo geral de eficiência para a avaliação do desenvolvimento humano. Aplicou-se a Análise Envoltória de Dados (DEA) – modelo Slack-Based Measure (SBM) com retornos variáveis de escala, orientado ao output, para o período de 2004-2009 a 2011-2014. As variáveis inputs utilizadas para todos os modelos foram as Transferências de Recursos do Governo Federal destinados ao Programa Bolsa Família e o PIB per capita. De forma geral, os resultados demonstraram que o Brasil avançou no cumprimento dos Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio. Os escores de eficiência foram elevados, evidenciando o desempenho satisfatório e a contribuição do Bolsa Família para a promoção do desenvolvimento humano no país. Por outro lado, identifica-se a necessidade de ampliação de investimentos destinados ao PBF, uma vez que se os níveis de eficiência estão elevados, existe pouca margem para expandir sua performance, sem alterar os inputs. Além disso, para promover o desenvolvimento humano é importante a combinação de políticas públicas a médio e longo prazo, além de ampliação de gastos sociais para construção de uma estrutura sólida que promova o desenvolvimento humano e melhora da qualidade de vida dos brasileiros. / Confronting poverty and promoting human development are very persistent and deeply rooted challenges in our society, what consequences affect the lives of millions of people. In the face of this scenario, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have been elaborated in the discussions of the 2000 Millennium Summit, held by the United Nations. Along these lines, one of Brazil\'s great efforts to combat poverty and social inequality was the implementation of the Bolsa Família Program (PBF) in 2003. Present in all Brazilian municipalities, Bolsa Família is considered the largest income transfer program with accompaniment in the area of health, education and social assistance of the developing world. In 2016, at a cost of 0.45% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the program served more than 13.5 million families, or more than 46.5 million Brazilians, who accounted for approximately 23% of the country\'s total population. Due to its social relevance, the objective of this study was to measure the efficiency of the Brazilian Federative Units in converting investments in the Bolsa Família Program and GDP per capita, in advancing the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, as well as identifying the determinants of efficiency. To this purpose, 6 efficiency models were developed, adapted to the Brazilian context, corresponding to the first six Millennium Development Goals: 1) eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, 2) achieve universal primary education, 3) promote equality between gender, and women\'s empowerment, (4) reducing child mortality, (5) improving maternal health, (6) combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. In addition, a general efficiency model for the assessment of human development was developed. We applied the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) - Slack-Based Measure (SBM) model with variable returns of scale, oriented to the output, for the period from 2004-2009 to 2011-2014. The input variables used for all models were the Federal Government Resource Transfers destined to the Bolsa Família Program and the GDP per capita. Overall, the results demonstrated that Brazil has made progress in achieving the Millennium Development Goals. The efficiency scores were high, evidencing the satisfactory performance and the contribution of the Bolsa Família to the promotion of human development in the country. On the other hand, it is identified the need to increase investments destined to the PBF, since if the levels of efficiency are high, there is little scope to expand its performance, without changing the inputs. In addition, to promote human development, it is important to combine public policies in the medium and long term, as well as to increase social spending to build a solid structure that promotes human development and improves the quality of life of Brazilians.

As a response to the ‘Grand Challenges’ of the 21st century such as climate change and social inequalities, the achievement of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), released by the United Nations in 2015, became a matter of urgency. The SDGs are a continuation of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) aiming to cover an even broader scope of social, environmental and economic challenges. To ensure that the 2030 Agenda, represented by 17 goals and 169 underlying targets, becomes a positive force for all available resources have to act in concert. Governments, NGOs, civil society and the private sector bear the responsibility to guide the way of transformation towards a more sustainable future. However, the most significant shift regarding the development of the SDGs has been the central role of the private sector that is considered to be a key player towards the accomplishment of the 2030 Agenda. In order examine the role and contribution of the private sector, the thesis aims to contribute to previous research within a five-step investigation: (1) analysis of which business opportunities or challenges emerge out of active involvement with the SDGs, (2) how partnerships or collaborations can contribute to a more effective implementation process, (3) whether goal prioritization is of relevance to advance the progress of SDG implementation, (4) how the SDG progress can be measured, reported and communicated and lastly (5) how effectively (Swedish) companies have currently managed to implement the Global Goals into their business operations. Based on the review of the literature and the identified research gaps, the following research question has been formulated to gain in-depth knowledge and investigate the phenomenon of the overall research purpose:   RQ: How do companies in the private sector implement the SDGs into their business operations and what are the determinants that drive the progress of the implementation? This study has been conducted through a qualitative research approach consisting of interviews with private sector representatives, governmental and non-governmental organizations. The framework for this study is based on three elements of theory: (1) Stakeholder Theory by Edward Freeman (1984), outlining how sustainable development can be approached with a stakeholder mindset, (2) the Triple-Bottom-Line approach by Elkington (1997) characterized by efforts to localize universal concepts of sustainability and (3) Sustainable Business Model Innovation represented by the Flourishing Business Model Canvas (Upward 2013, 2016) and the Triple Layered Business Model Canvas (Joyce and Paquin, 2016) supporting individuals and organizations seeking competitive sustainability-oriented change. The main conclusion of this research includes the requirement of a shift of how the Global Goals are approached by the private sector. SDG implementation or sustainable actions in general are not to be seen as an add on but need to be actively integrated into core business operations. However, to initiate fruitful change the expected role of the private sector needs to be clearly communicated. Identified actions to drive the progress of SDG implementation range from increased partnership engagement, the prioritization of goals up to the measurement and reporting on sustainable efforts taken. Finally, Credible Sustainability Standards turned out to be the most promising solution to eradicate many of the by our participants identified shortcomings of the Global Goals.

This thesis investigates the utilisation of maternal health care in Zambia, where despite being a signatory to the Safe Motherhood Initiative and Millennium Development Goals, which are aimed at improving maternal health, indicators of maternal health continue to perform poorly. The need to understand crucial factors in improving maternal health motivated the current research, especially since there is a dearth of literature in this area in Zambia. The thesis focuses on two aspects of maternal health care: antenatal care (ANC) and facility-based deliveries, to answer two broad questions. Firstly, what factors determine the use of ANC in Zambia? Secondly, to what extent has the abolition of user fees affected facility-based deliveries? An assessment of the factors, which explain the utilisation of ANC in Zambia, using three sets of comparable datasets reveals that, while there are differences in the factors explaining the decision to use ANC and the frequency of visits over time, the decision to seek ANC and the frequency of use is low among the poor and less educated, and there are marked regional differences in utilisation. The most appropriate econometric specification for antenatal visits, according to different performance indicators, was the two-part model, which differs from recent research favouring more complex methodologies. The analysis is further extended through the inclusion of supply-side factors and the examination of individual and community level factors associated with inadequate and non-use of ANC, following the adoption of the focused ANC approach in Zambia. To incorporate the supply side factors, the 2007 Zambia Demographic and Health Survey was linked to administrative and health facility census data using geo-referenced data. To assess the factors associated with (1) the inadequate use of ANC (defined as three or less visits), and (2) the non-use of ANC in the first trimester of pregnancy, we specify two multilevel logistic models. At the individual level, the woman’s employment status, quality of ANC received and the husband’s educational attainment are negatively associated, while parity, the household childcare burden and wealth are positively associated with inadequate utilisation of ANC. Both individual and community level characteristics influence inadequate use and non-use of ANC in the first trimester; however, community level factors are relatively stronger in rural areas. Although ANC is an important facet of maternal care, it occurs before delivery, but does not necessarily provide much information with respect to delivery decisions. Therefore, the thesis investigates delivery decisions, as well, in particular, the effect of user fee removal in rural areas of Zambia on facility-based deliveries. To account for regional differences, we employ a Seemingly Unrelated Regression model incorporating an Interrupted Time Series design. The analysis uses quarterly longitudinal data covering 2003q1-2008q4. When unobserved heterogeneity, spatial dependence and quantitative supply-side factors are controlled for, user fee removal is found to immediately increase aggregate facility-based deliveries, although the national trend was unaffected. Drug availability and the presence of traditional birth attendants also influence facility-based deliveries at the national level, such that, in the short-term, strengthening and improving community-based interventions could increase facility-based deliveries. However, there is significant variation and spatial dependence masked in the aggregate analysis. The results highlight the importance of service quality in promoting facility-based deliveries, and also suggest that social and cultural factors, especially in rural areas, influence the use of health facilities for delivery. These factors are not easily addressed, through an adjustment to the cost of delivery in health facilities. Additionally, we analyse the effect of user fee abolition on the location of childbirth, focussing on deliveries that occur in public health facilities using household survey data. To elicit the causal relationship, we exploit the relative change in fees across health districts within a difference-in-differences framework. Surprisingly, although reductions in home deliveries were observed, as expected, reductions in public health facility-based deliveries were also uncovered, along with increases in deliveries at private health facilities. However, these findings were statistically insignificant; suggesting that the abolition of user fees had little, if any, impact on the choice of location for childbirth. The statistically insignificant, but unexpected, causal effects further suggest that the removal of user fees have unintended consequences, possibly the transference of facility costs to the client, which would deter the utilisation of delivery services. Therefore, abolishing user fees, alone, may not be sufficient to affect changes in outcomes; instead, other efforts, such as improving service quality, could have a greater impact. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Economics / unrestricted

Southeast Australia have between 1997-2009 experienced a severe drought, referred to as the Millennium Drought. During these years the region experienced a 11.4% decline in mean annual rainfall, an unprecedented decrease in runoff and a decline in soil moisture and groundwater storage. The drought officially ended in 2010 when one of the strongest La Nina-events on record occurred. However, it is still unknown how the behaviour of the catchments changed during the drought and if this change persists in the years following the drought. Changes in catchment behaviour and fluxes are commonly determined using a catchment water balance, where the change in groundwater storage is assumed to be neglectable when studying longer periods of time. However, studies have showed that this assumption might be inaccurate for catchments that experience a climatic disturbance such as a severe drought. This study investigates if including the change in groundwater storage by using spatial groundwater head data can improve the catchment water balance. This was done by assuming that specific yields are unknown and to be determined in a calibration. An unknown scalar applied to the evapotranspiration was used to try to account for the uncertainties in the known fluxes and was also to be determined in the calibration. Two different calibration schemes were considered: one assuming no delay in groundwater head response to climate and one accounting for the delay. The fluxes were determined for the period before, during and after the drought. The results were analysed to determine if the catchments showed a change in behaviour during and after the drought. The results showed that when not accounting for the delayed response of the groundwater head, at least one of the specific yields in the catchments became infinitely small. Including the delayed groundwater head response did improve one of the catchments significantly by producing plausible specific yields for all geological units. A conclusion of this is that including the change in groundwater storage could improve the water balance. However, for it to do so a thorough analysis of the groundwater and subsurface needs to be conducted. Further, the water balance error was the third biggest flux after rainfall and actual evapotranspiration suggesting that the evapotranspiration scalar reduced the actual evapotranspiration too much. All fluxes did decrease during the drought, by how much differed between the catchments and the water balance components. Two of the catchments showed a change in behaviour during the drought that persisted in the years following the drought. The most likely fluxes to have caused this were the change in runoff and groundwater storage. The other two catchments showed a smaller change in behaviour during the drought and an indication that it was on its way back to the same state as before the drought. The likely fluxes to have caused the small change in behaviour was runoff and actual evapotranspiration. / Under åren 1997–2009 minskade den genomsnittliga årliga nederbörden över sydöstra Australien med 11.4% och den genomsnittliga årliga avrinningen var lägre än någonsin tidigare samtidigt som grundvattennivåerna sjönk. Denna torka brukar kallas the Millennium Drought och är den svåraste torkan i Australien i modern tid. Torkan tog officiellt slut 2010 då ett av de mest kraftfulla La Niña-fenomenen inträffade vilket bidrog till att april 2010 till mars 2012 var de blötaste två åren i australiensk historia. Trots att flera studier har gjorts kring torkan så är det ännu inte klarlagts hur avrinningsområdena i området påverkades och om de fortfarande är påverkade när torkan officiellt är över. Flödena inom ett avrinningsområde bestäms vanligtvis genom en vattenbalans. Då vattenbalansen över ett avrinningsområde studeras under en längre tid antas ofta att förändringarna i grundvattenmagasinen går att bortse från då grundvattennivån ofta återgår till samma stadie efter ett antal år. Nyare studier har dock visat att detta inte alltid är fallet vid exempelvis en svår torka och att det vid dessa fall inte är korrekt att anta att förändringen i grundvattenmagasinen är försumbar. I denna studie har en vattenbalans gjorts för fyra avrinningsområden i delstaten Victoria i Australien. Syftet har varit att avgöra om vattenbalansen kan förbättras om förändringen i grundvattenmagasinen inkluderas. Detta har gjorts genom att använda nyligen framtagen data för grundvattennivån i delstaten och antagit att den dränerbara porositeten är en okänd variabel. För att justera för osäkerheterna kring the kända flödena har en okänd faktor för evapotranspirationen inkluderats. De okända variablerna bestämdes i en kalibrering. Kalibreringen genomfördes för två olika kalibreringsscheman och för tre olika tidsperioder. Det ena kalibreringsschemat antog att grundvattnet direkt reagerade på effektiv nederbörd minus avrinning, medan den andra kalibreringsschemat tog hänsyn till en försenad reaktion. Kalibreringen gjordes för tidsperioderna innan, under och efter torkan. Resultaten visade att när ingen hänsyn togs till en eventuellt försenad reaktion av grundvatten så går värdet för dränerbar porositet i minst en geologisk enhet mot noll medan det andra värdet är rimligt. När hänsyn togs till en försenad reaktion av grundvattnet, fick fler avrinningsområde rimliga värden för dränerbar porositet för hela området. Slutsatsen som kan dras kring detta är att vattenbalansen kan förbättras om förändringen i grundvattenmagasinen inkluderas. Detta kräver dock en djupgående analys av grundvattnet och geologin i avrinningsområdet. Hur mycket flödena förändrades under och efter torkan varierar mellan avrinningsområdena och flödena, gemensamt var dock att alla flöden minskade under torkan. Två av avrinningsområdena påvisade en förändring i beteendet under torkan och de år som följde. Det är mest troligt att förändringarna i avrinning och grundvattenmagasinen har påverkat detta. De övriga två avrinningsområdena påvisade även de en förändring under torkan, om än mindre än för de föregående. Denna förändring ser även ut att vara på tillbakagående och att avrinningsområdet inom en snar framtid skulle kunna ha samma tillstånd som innan torkan. De mest troliga flödena som har påverkat dessa avrinningsområden är förändringar i avrinning och den faktisk evapotranspirationen.

In this thesis I argue that access to an adequate quantity and quality of safe water in sustainable ways is a basic moral human right, one that has been legally recognized by the international community through UN Resolution 15/9. As a result of water’s being a basic moral human right, governments, institutions, and individuals are obligated to avoid depriving, protect from deprivation, and aid those deprived of access to safe drinking water. Using this as a foundation, I examine the Millennium Development Goals, the Sustainable Development Goals, and water pricing as strategies used to fulfill the right to safe drinking water. I also provide arguments in favour of (national and international) tax schemes that cover the cost of providing 50L of safe water per person per day. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

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