La fraîcheur est un paramètre clé de la qualité du poisson. Les méthodes actuelles appliquées en routine pour déterminer la fraîcheur du poisson ne sont pas applicables à toutes les espèces et reflètent davantage un début d'altération du produit. Ainsi, la recherche d'indicateurs précoces de fraîcheur du poisson représente encore un défi majeur et d'actualité dans l'industrie de la pêche. Le but de ces travaux de thèse était de démontrer que les fonctions et l'intégrité mitochondriales étaient susceptibles de constituer des indicateurs précoces de la fraîcheur de filets de poisson. En effet, la mitochondrie est la "centrale" énergétique de la cellule eucaryote et joue un rôle clef dans les mécanismes de mort cellulaire tels que l'apoptose et la nécrose. Les fonctions et l'intégrité mitochondriales de cellules musculaires de filets de poisson ont été étudiées à différents temps de conservation post mortem à 4°C. Le modèle d'étude était la daurade royale (Sparus aurata) (lignée cellulaire de fibroblastes (SAF-1) et muscles de poisson). Dans un premier temps, la structure des mitochondries de poisson a été étudiée par microscopie électronique à transmission. De nombreuses dégradations de la structure des mitochondries ont été observées dans les filets à partir de 72 heures (J3) de conservation à 4°C. Ces altérations se sont accentuées à J4 et J6. La fonctionnalité des mitochondries a ensuite été évaluée selon deux approches : la respiration mitochondriale (oxygraphie) et le potentiel membranaire mitochondrial (ΔΨₘ) estimé avec la sonde fluorescente Rhodamine 123. A partir de 96 heures de conservation à 4°C (J4), ces deux paramètres ont été significativement impactés témoignant d'une altération des fonctions et de l'intégrité mitochondriales.Ces résultats sont ainsi en corrélation avec l'altération structurale observée par microscopie. En parallèle, une méthode d'évaluation du potentiel membranaire a été développée avec un fluorimètre à microvolume à partir d'un modèle bactérien puis de mitochondries isolées. Ces travaux de thèse ont démontré que l'étude des fonctionnalités mitochondriales constitue un marqueur fiable et précoce de la fraîcheur des filets de poisson. Des connaissances supplémentaires sur les mécanismes cellulaires post mortem ont également été apportées. Ces résultats constituent ainsi le point de départ pour le développement d'un kit d'évaluation de la fraîcheur et ouvrent la voie pour la recherche de marqueurs de fraîcheur et de congélation/décongélation basés sur les fonctionnalités et intégrité mitochondriales. / Freshness is a key parameter of fish quality. Current routine techniques to determine fish freshness are not applicable to all species and reflect a late stage of alteration. Thus, research on early indicators of fish freshness still represents a major and topical challenge in fishing industry. This PhD research project aimed to demonstrate that mitochondrial functions and integrity constitute early indicators of fish fillet freshness. Mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell and play a central role in cell death mecanisms such as apoptosis and necrosis. Mitochondrial function and integrity in fish filet muscle cells were studied at different times of storage post mortem at 4°C. The species studied as a model was the gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) (gilthead seabream fibroblast cell line (SAF-1) and fish fillets). Firstly, the structure of fish mitochondria was studied by transmission electron microscopy. Numerous mitochondrial structural alterations have been observed in fish fillet from 72 hours (D3) of storage at 4°C. These alterations were more pronounced at D4 and D6. Then, mitochondrial functionality was assessed with two approaches: mitochondrial respiration (oxygraphy) and mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨₘ) estimated with the fluorescent probe Rh123. From 96 hours of storage at 4°C (D4), these two parameters were significantly disrupted demonstrating the alteration of mitochondrial function and integrity. The results are in correlation with the mitochondrial structural alterations described by microscopy. In parallel, a method of mitochondrial membrane potential evaluation has been developed with a micro-volume fluorimeter, first using bacteria and then isolated mitochondria. This work demonstrated that the mitochondrial functionality study constitutes a reliable and early fish filet freshness indicator. Additional knowledge on cell mechanisms in post mortem condition has been brought. These results constitute the starting point for the development of a fish freshness assay kit and pave the way to research on others freshness and freeze-thawing indicators based on mitochondrial integrity and functionality.

INTRODUÇÃO: A forma clássica de encefalomiopatia mitocondrial associada à mutação do DNA mitocondrial m.3243A>G é a Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy with Lactic Acidosis and Stroke-like episodes (síndrome de MELAS). Entretanto, o espectro de manifestações clínicas dos indivíduos que apresentam essa mutação é bastante amplo. OBJETIVO: Descrever o espectro clínico, laboratorial e de imagem de pacientes com doença mitocondrial decorrente da mutação m.3243A>G. MÉTODOS: Estudo descritivo retrospectivo de uma série de casos de pacientes com a mutação m.3243A>G em seguimento no ANEM/HCFMRP-USP. Os dados clínicos e informações sobre exames complementares foram coletados através de revisão sistemática dos prontuários médicos dos pacientes selecionados. Os exames de neuroimagem foram revisados juntamente com neurorradiologista experiente para descrição das lesões encontradas. RESULTADOS: No período compreendido entre maio de 2000 e maio de 2015, a mutação m.3243A>G foi pesquisada em um total de 817 pacientes, em DNA extraído de células do sangue periférico (n= 441), de fragmentos de biópsia de músculo esquelético (n= 293), de ambos (n= 82) e mais raramente de células do sedimento urinário (n=1). Dentre esses, 16 indivíduos de 12 famílias apresentaram a referida mutação, resultando em uma taxa de detecção da mutação de 1,96% nessa população. Foram incluídos no estudo 12 indivíduos de 9 famílias que estavam em seguimento no nosso serviço. Os achados mais comuns nesta série foram em ordem de frequência: sinais de miopatia, transtornos neurocomportamentais, epilepsia, endocrinopatias, ataxia cerebelar, migrânea, episódios semelhantes a AVC, vômitos recorrentes, distúrbios de condução cardíaca, neuropatia periférica e sinais de disautonomia, mioclonias, surdez neurossensorial, cegueira cortical, comprometimento ocular, e proteinúria. Em nossa série, identificamos que cinco pacientes foram classificados com a forma clássica de MELAS, dois apresentaram CPEO associada a outros sintomas como transtornos psiquiátricos e diabetes mellitus. Os demais pacientes apresentavam características clínicas que não configuravam uma síndrome clinica definida. Além das lesões semelhantes a AVC, as lesões reveladas por neuroimagem mais frequentes nessa população foram alteração de sinal dos núcleos da base, atrofia encefálica e alteração de sinal da substância branca, sendo igualmente prevalentes entre os pacientes com a síndrome clássica de MELAS e os pacientes que não apresentaram lesões semelhantes a AVC. Dos pacientes com MELAS, 100% apresentaram pico anômalo de lactado e 60% redução do NAA à espectroscopia de prótons; enquanto que entre os pacientes sem lesões semelhantes a AVC essas alterações foram encontradas em dois e em um paciente Caracterização clínica, laboratorial e de neuroimagem de pacientes com doença mitocondrial associada à mutação m.3243A>G 8 respectivamente. Nós identificamos o achado inédito de azoospermia associada à mutação m.3243A>G. Essa é a maior série de casos de pacientes brasileiros com a mutação m.3243A>G até o momento. CONCLUSÃO: O amplo espectro de apresentação clínica e de neuroimagem é uma característica notável entre os pacientes com a mutação m.3243A>G do DNAmt. Essa desordem deve ser considerada em pacientes com evidência de sinais e sintomas que sugiram acometimento multissistêmico. / INTRODUCTION: The classic form of mitochondrial encephalomyopathy associated with m.3243A>G mutation is the Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy with Lactic Acidosis and Stroke-like episodes (MELAS syndrome). However, the spectrum of clinical manifestations of patients with this mutation is quite wide. OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical, laboratory and imaging spectrum of patients with mitochondrial disease due to m.3243A>G mutation METHODS: A retrospective descriptive study of a series of cases of patients with the m.3243A>G mutation in follow-up in ANEM/HCFMRP-USP. Clinical data and information about additional tests were collected through systematic review of medical records of selected patients. Neuroimaging studies were reviewed with supervision of experienced neuroradiologist and the lesions were described. RESULTS: Between May 2000 and May 2015, the mutation m.3243A>G was evaluated in a total of 817 patients, on DNA extracted from peripheral blood (n = 441), skeletal muscle biopsy samples (n = 293), both (n = 82) and more rarely urinary sediment cells (n = 1). We founded 16 individuals 12 families with the mutation, resulting in a mutation detection rate of 1.96 % that population. 12 individuals from nine families, who were following at our service, were included in this study. The most common findings in this series were in order of frequency: myopathy signs, neurobehavioral disorders, epilepsy, endocrine disorders, cerebellar ataxia, migraine, stroke-like episodes, recurrent vomiting, cardiac conduction disorders, peripheral neuropathy and signs of dysautonomia, myoclonus, sensorineural deafness, cortical blindness, uveitis, and proteinuria. In our series, we found that five of the patients were classified with the classical MELAS syndrome, two patients had CPEO associated with other symptoms such as psychiatric disorders and diabetes mellitus. The remaining patients had other features of mitochondrial disease not consistent with another recognised syndrome. In addition to stroke-like lesions, the more frequent lesions revealed in neuroimaging studies were deep gray matter changes, brain atrophy and white matter changes. These changes had similar prevalences between the patients with the classic syndrome of MELAS and patients who did not have stroke-like lesions. All patients with classical MELAS have lactate peak and 60% of them have reduction of NAA at spectroscpopy; while these changes were found in two and one patient respectively, in the group of patients without stroke-like lesions. We identified azoospermia in one paciente with classic MELAS, a finding not previously associated with m.3243A>G. At moment, this is the largest Brazilian case series of patients with the m.3243A>G mutation. Clinical, laboratory and neuroimaging features of patients with mitochondrial disease associated with mutation m.3243A > G 10 CONCLUSION: The wide spectrum of clinical presentation and neuroimaging is a notable feature among patients with the mutation m.3243A> G mtDNA. This disorder should be considered in patients with evidence of signs and symptoms suggestive of multisystem involvement.

Le zinc est un métal, membre des éléments trace dont le rôle protecteur contre l’ischémie-reperfusion myocardique a été suggéré. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons étudié le mécanisme par lequel le zinc procure cette protection. Nous avons utilisé des cultures cellulaires de cardiomyoblastes de rat, des cardiomyocytes isolés de rat, des mitochondries isolées ainsi qu’un modèle de cœur isolé perfusé de rat. Nous avons montré que l'administration de zinc au début de la reperfusion permet de diminuer la mort cellulaire sur un modèle d’ischémie-reperfusion simulée. Nous avons montré que l’administration de zinc entraine l’activation de la cascade des kinases de survie (PI-3K/Akt), l’inhibition de GSK-3β et celle de l’ouverture du pore de transition de perméabilité mitochondrial. Nous avons ensuite montré qu’en présence de zinc, l’activation d’Akt provenait d’une inhibition de certaines phosphatases et d’une activation du domaine tyrosine kinase du récepteur IGF-1. Nos derniers travaux ont eu pour but de préciser le rôle du zinc suite à l'activation des récepteurs à adénosine. / Zinc is a member of the family of the metal trace elements and its role in the protection against lethal reperfusion injury has been strongly suggested. The aim of the present work was to determine the molecular mechanisms involved in zinc cardioprotection. We have used cultured rat cardiomyoblasts, isolated rat cardiomyocytes, isolated mitochondria and isolated perfused rat heart. We demonstrated that zinc given at reperfusion, limits cell necrosis in a model of simulated ischemia-reperfusion. Administration of zinc results in activation of the reperfusion-injury salvage kinases pathway (PI-3K/Akt), inhibition of GSK-3β and of the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. We then showed that, in the presence of zinc, activation of Akt is mediated by the inhibition of various phosphatases and by activation of the tyrosine kinase domain of the IGF-1 receptor. Our latest experiments report the action of zinc following activation of adenosine receptors

La caractérisation des réseaux trophiques est nécessaire pour comprendre le fonctionnement des écosystèmes et les mécanismes impliqués dans leur stabilité. Il est parfois difficile de déterminer les régimes alimentaires notamment pour des espèces discrètes et difficiles à observer comme les grands carnivores. Cependant, ces espèces jouent un rôle clé dans les écosystèmes dont elles influencent le fonctionnement et la biodiversité. Ainsi, connaitre le régime alimentaire des grands prédateurs avec précision est essentiel pour établir des stratégies de conservation. Diverses méthodes basées sur le monitoring, l'analyse d'échantillons invasifs ou non ont été utilisées pour étudier les régimes alimentaires. Elles sont généralement biaisées ou peu résolutives. Les méthodes basées sur l'identification des fragments d'ADN dans les fèces ont le potentiel de fournir une meilleure information, notamment dans le cadre d'une approche métabarcoding. Il s'agit de caractériser simultanément l'ensemble des espèces dont l'ADN est présent dans un échantillon environnemental, en utilisant les Nouvelles Techniques de Séquençage. Dans ce cas, les amorces universelles nécessaires pour amplifier toutes les proies potentielles amplifient également l'ADN du prédateur s'il y a proximité taxonomique (par exemple mammifères). Ainsi les produits PCR obtenus à partir des fèces sont essentiellement composés d'ADN du prédateur et ne reflètent pas l'ensemble du régime alimentaire. L'utilisation d'un oligonucléotide de blocage limitant spécifiquement l'amplification de l'ADN du prédateur peut résoudre ce problème. Nous avons développé une méthode de ce type basée sur l'utilisation d'amorces universelles pour les vertébrés (amplifiant la région 12SV5) et d'oligonucléotides de blocage. Bien que non quantitative, cette méthode s'est montrée robuste, adaptée à l'étude de prédateurs à très large spectre de proies, et très résolutive pour identifier les proies au niveau du genre et de l'espèce. Nous l'avons appliquée à l'étude du régime alimentaire du chat léopard (Prionailurus bengalensis) qui s'est avéré très diversifié (mammifères, oiseaux, amphibiens et poissons) dans les deux populations du Pakistan étudiées. Avec la même approche, nous avons démontré la réalité du conflit entre l'homme et le léopard commun (Panthera pardus) dont le régime est presque exclusivement composé d'animaux domestiques. Enfin, nous avons pu proposer des actions de conservations pertinentes après avoir montré que le régime de la très menacée panthère des neiges (Panthera uncia) est principalement composé d'ongulés sauvages. / Information on food webs is central to understand ecosystem functioning. It also provides information of ecosystem stability by evaluating the resource availability and use. Obtaining information on the diet can be critical especially when dealing with elusive carnivores, which are difficult to observe. However, these large carnivores are keystone species that influence the ecosystem through trophic cascades and maintain biodiversity. Thus, precise knowledge of their diet is a prerequisite for designing conservation strategies of these endangered species. Direct and indirect monitoring as well as invasive and non-invasive approaches that have been used to study the diet are either biased or have a low resolution. The DNA-based analysis of feces is an alternative method that may provide better information. It can be implemented through a metabarcoding approach, which is the simultaneous identification of multiple species from a single environmental sample containing degraded DNA by using Next Generation Sequencing. In this case, the use of universal primers for vertebrates amplifying all potential prey also amplifies the predator DNA when it belongs to a close taxon (e.g. mammals). Thus, the PCR products obtained from feces extracts will mainly consist of predator sequences and may not represent the full diet. The use of oligonucleotides specifically blocking the amplification of the predator DNA may overcome this problem. We have developed such a method based on the concomitant use of a universal primer pair (12SV5, amplifying all vertebrates) and blocking oligonucleotides for identifying the prey DNA fragments from predators feces. Even if the method developed is not quantitative, it is robust and adequate for studying predator with a very large dietary range and has a better resolution than traditional methods for identifying prey at the genus or species level. This methodology has been applied to characterize the highly eclectic diet (mammals, birds, amphibians and fishes) of two Northern-Pakistani populations of leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis). With the same approach, we demonstrated the importance of the Human-leopard conflict in Pakistan, due to the almost exclusive consumption of domestic animals by the common leopard (Panthera pardus). We could also highlight relevant conservation issues for the highly endangered and cryptic snow leopard (Panthera uncia), based on the fact that it mainly fed on wild ungulates.

INTRODUÇÃO: A forma clássica de encefalomiopatia mitocondrial associada à mutação do DNA mitocondrial m.3243A>G é a Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy with Lactic Acidosis and Stroke-like episodes (síndrome de MELAS). Entretanto, o espectro de manifestações clínicas dos indivíduos que apresentam essa mutação é bastante amplo. OBJETIVO: Descrever o espectro clínico, laboratorial e de imagem de pacientes com doença mitocondrial decorrente da mutação m.3243A>G. MÉTODOS: Estudo descritivo retrospectivo de uma série de casos de pacientes com a mutação m.3243A>G em seguimento no ANEM/HCFMRP-USP. Os dados clínicos e informações sobre exames complementares foram coletados através de revisão sistemática dos prontuários médicos dos pacientes selecionados. Os exames de neuroimagem foram revisados juntamente com neurorradiologista experiente para descrição das lesões encontradas. RESULTADOS: No período compreendido entre maio de 2000 e maio de 2015, a mutação m.3243A>G foi pesquisada em um total de 817 pacientes, em DNA extraído de células do sangue periférico (n= 441), de fragmentos de biópsia de músculo esquelético (n= 293), de ambos (n= 82) e mais raramente de células do sedimento urinário (n=1). Dentre esses, 16 indivíduos de 12 famílias apresentaram a referida mutação, resultando em uma taxa de detecção da mutação de 1,96% nessa população. Foram incluídos no estudo 12 indivíduos de 9 famílias que estavam em seguimento no nosso serviço. Os achados mais comuns nesta série foram em ordem de frequência: sinais de miopatia, transtornos neurocomportamentais, epilepsia, endocrinopatias, ataxia cerebelar, migrânea, episódios semelhantes a AVC, vômitos recorrentes, distúrbios de condução cardíaca, neuropatia periférica e sinais de disautonomia, mioclonias, surdez neurossensorial, cegueira cortical, comprometimento ocular, e proteinúria. Em nossa série, identificamos que cinco pacientes foram classificados com a forma clássica de MELAS, dois apresentaram CPEO associada a outros sintomas como transtornos psiquiátricos e diabetes mellitus. Os demais pacientes apresentavam características clínicas que não configuravam uma síndrome clinica definida. Além das lesões semelhantes a AVC, as lesões reveladas por neuroimagem mais frequentes nessa população foram alteração de sinal dos núcleos da base, atrofia encefálica e alteração de sinal da substância branca, sendo igualmente prevalentes entre os pacientes com a síndrome clássica de MELAS e os pacientes que não apresentaram lesões semelhantes a AVC. Dos pacientes com MELAS, 100% apresentaram pico anômalo de lactado e 60% redução do NAA à espectroscopia de prótons; enquanto que entre os pacientes sem lesões semelhantes a AVC essas alterações foram encontradas em dois e em um paciente Caracterização clínica, laboratorial e de neuroimagem de pacientes com doença mitocondrial associada à mutação m.3243A>G 8 respectivamente. Nós identificamos o achado inédito de azoospermia associada à mutação m.3243A>G. Essa é a maior série de casos de pacientes brasileiros com a mutação m.3243A>G até o momento. CONCLUSÃO: O amplo espectro de apresentação clínica e de neuroimagem é uma característica notável entre os pacientes com a mutação m.3243A>G do DNAmt. Essa desordem deve ser considerada em pacientes com evidência de sinais e sintomas que sugiram acometimento multissistêmico. / INTRODUCTION: The classic form of mitochondrial encephalomyopathy associated with m.3243A>G mutation is the Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy with Lactic Acidosis and Stroke-like episodes (MELAS syndrome). However, the spectrum of clinical manifestations of patients with this mutation is quite wide. OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical, laboratory and imaging spectrum of patients with mitochondrial disease due to m.3243A>G mutation METHODS: A retrospective descriptive study of a series of cases of patients with the m.3243A>G mutation in follow-up in ANEM/HCFMRP-USP. Clinical data and information about additional tests were collected through systematic review of medical records of selected patients. Neuroimaging studies were reviewed with supervision of experienced neuroradiologist and the lesions were described. RESULTS: Between May 2000 and May 2015, the mutation m.3243A>G was evaluated in a total of 817 patients, on DNA extracted from peripheral blood (n = 441), skeletal muscle biopsy samples (n = 293), both (n = 82) and more rarely urinary sediment cells (n = 1). We founded 16 individuals 12 families with the mutation, resulting in a mutation detection rate of 1.96 % that population. 12 individuals from nine families, who were following at our service, were included in this study. The most common findings in this series were in order of frequency: myopathy signs, neurobehavioral disorders, epilepsy, endocrine disorders, cerebellar ataxia, migraine, stroke-like episodes, recurrent vomiting, cardiac conduction disorders, peripheral neuropathy and signs of dysautonomia, myoclonus, sensorineural deafness, cortical blindness, uveitis, and proteinuria. In our series, we found that five of the patients were classified with the classical MELAS syndrome, two patients had CPEO associated with other symptoms such as psychiatric disorders and diabetes mellitus. The remaining patients had other features of mitochondrial disease not consistent with another recognised syndrome. In addition to stroke-like lesions, the more frequent lesions revealed in neuroimaging studies were deep gray matter changes, brain atrophy and white matter changes. These changes had similar prevalences between the patients with the classic syndrome of MELAS and patients who did not have stroke-like lesions. All patients with classical MELAS have lactate peak and 60% of them have reduction of NAA at spectroscpopy; while these changes were found in two and one patient respectively, in the group of patients without stroke-like lesions. We identified azoospermia in one paciente with classic MELAS, a finding not previously associated with m.3243A>G. At moment, this is the largest Brazilian case series of patients with the m.3243A>G mutation. Clinical, laboratory and neuroimaging features of patients with mitochondrial disease associated with mutation m.3243A > G 10 CONCLUSION: The wide spectrum of clinical presentation and neuroimaging is a notable feature among patients with the mutation m.3243A> G mtDNA. This disorder should be considered in patients with evidence of signs and symptoms suggestive of multisystem involvement.

Muitos estudos demonstram que a abertura de canais de K+ mitocondriais sensíveis à ATP (mitoKATP) previnem contra danos promovidos por isquemia/reperfusão em coração. Em geral, esta proteção envolve mudanças no estado redox mitocondrial. Em cérebro, sabe-se que agonistas farmacológicos de mitoKATP também protegem em modelo de isquemia/reperfusão. Entretanto, os mecanismos envolvidos na prevenção de danos em cérebro ainda não estão claros. O objetivo principal deste trabalho é compreender os efeitos de canais de K+ mitocondriais ATP-sensíveis em tecido cerebral e os mecanismos pelos quais a sua ativação pode proteger contra danos promovidos por excitotoxicidade, uma das principais conseqüências de um evento isquêmico em cérebro. Neste contexto, demonstramos a proteção pelo mitoKATP em modelo de excitotoxicidade induzida pela ativação direta de receptores NMDA, utilizando cultura de células granulosas de cerebelo. Paralelamente a essa proteção, verificamos que a ativação de mitoKATP reduz a geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS). Em mitocôndrias isoladas, observamos que ROS geradas pela mitocôndria ativam mitoKATP cerebral, resultando em um aumento da captação de K+ para a matriz, medida através da técnica de inchamento mitocondrial. Em condições de baixa geração de ROS, a adição de H2O2 exógeno ativa o inchamento mitocondrial em resposta à entrada de K+ de modo prevenido por catalase, assim, confirmando que a atividade desses canais é redox-sensível. A ativação de mitoKATP por agonistas farmacológicos, como diazóxido, também é maior na presença de alta geração de ROS, conforme indicado por uma leve diminuição no potencial de membrana mitocondrial. Interessantemente, a adição de um redutor tiólico, 2-mercaptopropionilglicina (MPG) previne a ativação de mitoKATP. A ativação de mitoKATP não alterou a capacidade de captar Ca2+ pela mitocôndria, demonstrando que este não é o mecanismo pelo qual esses canais previnem morte celular excitotóxica. Não foram observados efeitos desses canais em modelo de excitotoxicidade in vivo e em modelo de doença neurodegenerativa, acidose metilmalônica. Juntos, nossos resultados demonstram que mitoKATP cerebrais agem como sensores de ROS mitocondrial, que quando ativados reduzem a liberação de ROS por um leve desacoplamento, prevenindo morte neuronal por excitotoxicidade NMDA-induzida / Several studies have shown that mitochondrial ATP-sensitive K+ channel (mitoKATP) opening prevents ischemia/reperfusion injuries in heart, in a manner involving changes in redox state. In brain, mitoKATP agonists also protect against ischemia/reperfusion. However, the exactly mechanism that mitoKATP protects the brain is still unclear. The purpose of this work is to understand the effects of mitochondrial ATP-sensitive K+ channels in brain and how this channel can protect against excitotoxic cell death, the main consequence of a cerebral ischemia. In this context, we demonstrate that mitoKATP protects against excitotoxicity promoted by NMDA receptor activation in cultured cerebellar granule cells. In paralell, we verified that mitoKATP activation also decreases reactive oxygen species (ROS). In isolated mitochondria, we observed that mitochondrially-generated ROS can activate brain mitoKATP, resulting in enhanced K+ uptake into the matrix, measured as swelling of the organelle. Under conditions in which mitochondrial ROS release is low, exogenous H2O2 activated swelling secondary to K+ entrance, in a manner prevented by catalase, confirming that the activity of this channel is redox-sensitive. Activation of mitoKATP channels by the pharmacological agonist diazoxide was also improved when endogenous mitochondrial ROS release was enhanced, as indicated by mild decreases in mitochondrial membrane potentials. Interessantly, mitoKATP activation was preveted by the thiol reductant 2-mercaptopropionylglycine (MPG). Mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake was not modified by opening mitoKATP, suggesting that this is not the mechanism through which this channel prevents excitotoxic cell death. In an in vivo excitotoxicity model and also neurodegenerative disease model, methylmalonic acidemia, the effects of mitoKATP agonists were not observed. Together, our results demonstrate that brain mitoKATP acts as a mitochondrial ROS sensor, which, when activated, prevents ROS release by mildly uncoupling respiration from oxidative phosphorylation, decreasing excitotoxic cell death

A fibrose hepática é uma patologia que acompanha outras doenças crônicas do fígado como a cirrose e o hepatocarcinoma. As células estreladas hepáticas (HSC, do inglês hepatic stellate cells) compõem uma população celular heterogênea que se caracteriza por transitar entre dois fenótipos. As células com fenótipo quiescente possuem a capacidade de armazenar vitamina A em gotas lipídicas. Os insultos ao fígado desencadeiam uma resposta inflamatória que gera estímulos parácrinos e autócrinos mediados por citocinas e espécies reativas. Neste contexto, as HSC assumem um fenótipo ativado fibrogênico e tornam-se responsáveis pela cicatrização hepática. Danos crônicos ao fígado levam a uma deposição de matriz extracelular exagerada que configura o estado patológico da fibrose. O resveratrol (RSV – 3,4’,5-tri-hidroxi-trans-estilbeno) é uma fitoalexina produzida por algumas espécies de plantas. Inúmeros efeitos benéficos à saúde são atribuídos ao RSV por causa do seu potencial antioxidante, antiinflamatório e pró-apoptótico. Estudos anteriores mostraram que tratamento da GRX, uma linhagem murina de HSC ativadas, com concentrações de RSV próximas as biodisponíveis (0,1 a 1 μM) resultou em parada do ciclo na fase S com consequente inibição de proliferação celular, um efeito associado à citotoxicidade e que pode favorecer a resolução da fibrose hepática. Neste estudo, por técnicas espectrofotométricas, foi demonstrado que tratamento da GRX por 24 horas com concentrações entre 0,1 a 50 μM de RSV promoveu um efeito pró-oxidante que causa uma citotoxicidade dependente da dose, bastante aumentada no grupo tratado com a concentração mais alta. Os efeitos citotóxicos atenuados encontrados nas células tratadas por 120 horas sugerem que a GRX pode se tornar resistente a estes efeitos. O potencial pró-oxidante do RSV foi o ponto de partida para investigar a possibilidade de que esta fitoalexina provocasse uma alteração no metabolismo mitocondrial da GRX. Para isso, os efeitos do RSV (1 a 50 μM) na função mitocondrial, na indução de morte mediada por estas organelas e na autofagia/mitofagia foram investigados por técnicas de espectrofotometria, de imunocitoquímica, de citometria de fluxo, de microscopia confocal e de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão em GRX tratadas por 24 e 120 horas. Foi demonstrado que todas as concentrações de RSV promovem apoptose por meio da ativação de caspases, alteram a dinâmica/função mitocondrial e induzem o aumento de autofagia/mitofagia na GRX. No entanto, o RSV provocou biogênese de mitocôndrias nos grupos tratados com 1 e 10 μM, enquanto que o tratamento com 50 μM causou dano celular evidente na GRX, sem induzir biogênese de mitocôndrias. Desta forma, é possível que a citotoxicidade “dose-dependente” do RSV, que causa a morte celular e dano oxidativo em 24 horas de tratamento, esteja relacionada com o desequilíbrio entre a indução concomitante de apoptose mediada por dano mitocondrial, autofagia/mitofagia e biogênese de mitocôndrias. Por fim, foi investigada a liberação de TNF-α, Interleucina-6 e Interleucina-10 pela GRX tratada por 24 e 120 horas com RSV (0,1 a 50 μM), considerando o papel antiinflamatório do RSV e o papel das HSC ativadas na sinalização autócrina que contribui para a modulação fenotípica destas células. Foi demonstrado que o tratamento da GRX com RSV por 24 e 120 horas induziu a redução da liberação de Interleucina-6; enquanto que a liberação de TNF-α e Interleucina-10 foi aumentada. Estes resultados confirmam um efeito antiinflamatório do RSV que deve contribuir na prevenção da ativação ou da perpetuação do estado ativado das HSC por meio de sinalização autócrina. Ainda que a concentração do RSV seja importante para efetivamente induzir a morte das HSC ativadas, o tratamento com esta fitoalexina pode ser promissor para a resolução da fibrose hepática por diminuir a população de células ativadas e, possivelmente, prevenir a perpetuação do estado fenotípico ativado. Estudos avaliando indicadores de quiescência em células tratadas são ainda necessários para desvendar completamente os efeitos do RSV quanto às possibilidades de inibição da perpetuação ou reversão fenotípica das HSC ativadas. / Liver fibrosis is a disease that accompanies other hepatic chronic diseases such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatic stellate cells (HSC) are a heterogeneous cell population characterized by transiting between two phenotypes. Cells with a quiescent phenotype are able to store vitamin A into lipid droplets. Damage to the liver trigger an inflammatory response that generates paracrine and autocrine stimulation mediated by cytokines and reactive species. In this context, HSC assume an activated and fibrogenic phenotype responsive for hepatic wound-healing. Chronic insults to the liver lead to an excessive deposition of extracellular matrix that configures the pathological state of fibrosis. Resveratrol (RSV – 3,4’,5-tri-hidroxi-trans-stilbeno) is a phytoalexin produced by some species of plants. Several beneficial effects are attributed to this molecule due to its antioxidant, antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic potential. Previous studies showed that treatment with bioavailable concentrations of RSV (0.1 to 1 μM) promoted an arrest cycle at the S phase in GRX, a murine activated HSC model, leading to cell proliferation inhibition, a cytotoxic effect that contributes to the liver fibrosis resolution. In this study, it was shown by spectrophotometric techniques that GRX treatment for 24 hours at concentrations between 0.1 to 50 μM of RSV promoted a fairly clear pro-oxidant effect that causes a dose-dependent cytotoxicity that was higher in the group treated with 50 μM. The attenuated cytotoxicity found after 120 hours of GRX treatment suggest that these cells became resistant to this effect. The pro-oxidant potential of RSV was the starting point for investigating the possibility that this phytoalexin would cause a change in the GRX mitochondrial metabolism. Thus, the effects of RSV (1 to 50 μM) on altering the mitochondrial function, on inducing mitochondrial-mediated cell death, and autophagy/mitofagia were investigated in GRX treated for 24 and 120 hours by spectrophotometric techniques, immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry, confocal microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. All the RSV concentrations promote cell apoptosis through caspases activation, alter the mitochondrial dynamics and function, and induce an increase of autophagy/mitofagia. Curiously, only 1 and 10 μM of RSV induced mitochondrial biogenesis in GRX, while the highest concentration caused an evident cell damage without inducing mitochondrial biogenesis. Thus, it is possible that the "dose-dependent" cytotoxicity of RSV, which causes cell death and oxidative damage in 24 hours of treatment, is related to an imbalance between the concomitant induction of mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis, autophagy/mitofagia, and mitochondrial biogenesis. Finally, it was investigated the release of TNF-α, Interleukin-6 and Interleukin-10 by GRX treated for 24 and 120 hours with RSV (0.1 to 50 μM), considering the anti-inflammatory role of RSV and the autocrine signalling role of HSC that contributes to the perpetuation of its activated phenotype. It was demonstrated that GRX treatment with RSV for 24 and 120 hours reduced the release of Interleukin-6 in the culture medium; whereas the release of TNF-α and Interleukin-10 was increased. These results confirm the anti-inflammatory properties of RSV and may contribute to the prevention of HSC activation through autocrine signalling. Although RSV concentration is important to effectively induce activated HSC death, cells treatment with this phytoalexin may be promising for liver fibrosis resolution through decreasing the population of activated cells or through preventing the perpetuation of activated state of HSC. Future studies evaluating the quiescence indicators of GRX under RSV treatment are still needed to fully unravel the effects of this phytoalexin on inhibiting the perpetuation of activated HSC or reversing its activated phenotype.

Muitos estudos demonstram que a abertura de canais de K+ mitocondriais sensíveis à ATP (mitoKATP) previnem contra danos promovidos por isquemia/reperfusão em coração. Em geral, esta proteção envolve mudanças no estado redox mitocondrial. Em cérebro, sabe-se que agonistas farmacológicos de mitoKATP também protegem em modelo de isquemia/reperfusão. Entretanto, os mecanismos envolvidos na prevenção de danos em cérebro ainda não estão claros. O objetivo principal deste trabalho é compreender os efeitos de canais de K+ mitocondriais ATP-sensíveis em tecido cerebral e os mecanismos pelos quais a sua ativação pode proteger contra danos promovidos por excitotoxicidade, uma das principais conseqüências de um evento isquêmico em cérebro. Neste contexto, demonstramos a proteção pelo mitoKATP em modelo de excitotoxicidade induzida pela ativação direta de receptores NMDA, utilizando cultura de células granulosas de cerebelo. Paralelamente a essa proteção, verificamos que a ativação de mitoKATP reduz a geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS). Em mitocôndrias isoladas, observamos que ROS geradas pela mitocôndria ativam mitoKATP cerebral, resultando em um aumento da captação de K+ para a matriz, medida através da técnica de inchamento mitocondrial. Em condições de baixa geração de ROS, a adição de H2O2 exógeno ativa o inchamento mitocondrial em resposta à entrada de K+ de modo prevenido por catalase, assim, confirmando que a atividade desses canais é redox-sensível. A ativação de mitoKATP por agonistas farmacológicos, como diazóxido, também é maior na presença de alta geração de ROS, conforme indicado por uma leve diminuição no potencial de membrana mitocondrial. Interessantemente, a adição de um redutor tiólico, 2-mercaptopropionilglicina (MPG) previne a ativação de mitoKATP. A ativação de mitoKATP não alterou a capacidade de captar Ca2+ pela mitocôndria, demonstrando que este não é o mecanismo pelo qual esses canais previnem morte celular excitotóxica. Não foram observados efeitos desses canais em modelo de excitotoxicidade in vivo e em modelo de doença neurodegenerativa, acidose metilmalônica. Juntos, nossos resultados demonstram que mitoKATP cerebrais agem como sensores de ROS mitocondrial, que quando ativados reduzem a liberação de ROS por um leve desacoplamento, prevenindo morte neuronal por excitotoxicidade NMDA-induzida / Several studies have shown that mitochondrial ATP-sensitive K+ channel (mitoKATP) opening prevents ischemia/reperfusion injuries in heart, in a manner involving changes in redox state. In brain, mitoKATP agonists also protect against ischemia/reperfusion. However, the exactly mechanism that mitoKATP protects the brain is still unclear. The purpose of this work is to understand the effects of mitochondrial ATP-sensitive K+ channels in brain and how this channel can protect against excitotoxic cell death, the main consequence of a cerebral ischemia. In this context, we demonstrate that mitoKATP protects against excitotoxicity promoted by NMDA receptor activation in cultured cerebellar granule cells. In paralell, we verified that mitoKATP activation also decreases reactive oxygen species (ROS). In isolated mitochondria, we observed that mitochondrially-generated ROS can activate brain mitoKATP, resulting in enhanced K+ uptake into the matrix, measured as swelling of the organelle. Under conditions in which mitochondrial ROS release is low, exogenous H2O2 activated swelling secondary to K+ entrance, in a manner prevented by catalase, confirming that the activity of this channel is redox-sensitive. Activation of mitoKATP channels by the pharmacological agonist diazoxide was also improved when endogenous mitochondrial ROS release was enhanced, as indicated by mild decreases in mitochondrial membrane potentials. Interessantly, mitoKATP activation was preveted by the thiol reductant 2-mercaptopropionylglycine (MPG). Mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake was not modified by opening mitoKATP, suggesting that this is not the mechanism through which this channel prevents excitotoxic cell death. In an in vivo excitotoxicity model and also neurodegenerative disease model, methylmalonic acidemia, the effects of mitoKATP agonists were not observed. Together, our results demonstrate that brain mitoKATP acts as a mitochondrial ROS sensor, which, when activated, prevents ROS release by mildly uncoupling respiration from oxidative phosphorylation, decreasing excitotoxic cell death

La Paléogénétique a pour but l’analyse de l’ADN de pièces archéologiques, et le renouveau de cette discipline tend à intégrer une dimension génomique par le séquençage massif des spécimens les mieux préservés. Les grottes, dont la température reste fraîche et constante, permettent la conservation de l’ADN. Nous avons analysé des échantillons du Pléistocène conservés dans des grottes, dont un site archéologique majeur, la Grotte Chauvet. L’étude a porté sur deux espèces, l’ours des cavernes, Ursus spelaeus et l’hyène des cavernes, Crocuta crocuta spelaea.À partir d’un échantillon particulièrement bien conservé de la Grotte Chauvet, nous avons séquencé le génome mitochondrial de l’ours des cavernes et établi la phylogénie de cette espèce éteinte. Nous avons montré que l’ours des cavernes est une espèce proche des ours bruns et polaires dont elle s’est séparée il y a 1,6 million d’années. Nous avons ensuite analysé la région de contrôle mitochondrial de plusieurs spécimens des Grottes Chauvet et des Deux-Ouvertures datés de 28 000 à 32 000 ans. La forte homogénéité génétique de cette population ardéchoise pourrait être corrélée à la disparition régionale de l’espèce.Enfin, nous avons réalisé l’analyse génomique de coprolithes d’hyène des cavernes. Nous avons mis en évidence des quantités importantes d’ADN nucléaire et mitochondrial dans les coprolithes et reconstitué le premier génome mitochondrial complet d’hyène des cavernes. La présence d’ADN de cerf élaphe, Cervus elaphus, nous permet de décrire une relation proie-prédateur du Pléistocène. / Palaeogenetics aims at analysing DNA from archaeological remains. New genetic sequencing technologies revitalize the discipline through genomic analysis. Because of cool and constant temperature, cave sites allow the preservation of ancient DNA. We carried out DNA analysis of Pleistocene specimens originating from cave sites, especially the Chauvet cave. We studied samples from two extinct species, the cave bear, Ursus spelaeus, and the cave hyena, Crocuta crocuta spelaea.Using a well-preserved sample from Chauvet cave, we characterized the 16,810 bp-long mitochondrial genome of the extinct cave bear, and established its phylogeny. We were able to ascertain that the cave bear is a sister-species to the brown and polar bears, and that the two lineages split about 1.6 million years ago. We also sequenced mitochondrial control region fragments of Chauvet and Deux-Ouvertures cave bear samples. These Ardèche bear specimens, dated back to 28,000-32,000 years BP, display strong genetic homogeneity that may be related to the imminent species extinction.Finally, we analysed cave hyena coprolites from the Coumère Cave by metagenomic DNA sequencing. As these fossilized feces still contain a high amount of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, we were able to decipher the first complete mitochondrial genome for the cave hyena. We found DNA from the red deer, Cervus elaphus, thus depicting a Pleistocene predator-prey relationship.

Das mitochondriale Genom der Pflanze weist mit einer heterogenen Population linearer, häufig auch verzweigten und zusätzlichen kleineren, zirkulären Molekülen eine komplexe Struktur auf. Um Einblicke in die mitochondrialen Genkopienzahl und deren Regulation sowohl unter normalen als auch unter Stressbedingungen zu erhalten, wurde die Kopienzahl pro Zelle vier repräsentativer Gene mittels qRT-PCR und Durchflusszytometrie ermittelt. Die Bestimmung der mitochondrialen Genkopienzahl in unterschiedlichen Spezies sowie in Organen der Modellpflanze Arabidopsis thaliana zeigte, dass die Kopienzahl mitochondrialer Gene sich nicht nur in den unterschiedlichen Spezies, sondern auch zwischen den unterschiedlichen Organen unterschied, wobei die höchsten Werte in der Wurzelspitze erreicht wurden. In Arabidopsis Keimlingen, welche zur Unterdrückung der plastidären Translation auf Spectinomycin-haltigem Medium angezogen wurden, wurde im Vergleich zu Kontrollpflanzen ein dreifacher Anstieg der Genkopienzahl festgestellt. Dieser Effekt erwies sich als spezifisch für Blatt- bzw. Kotyledonengewebe und warr unabhängig vom Licht. Mutanten mit Defekten in der Respiration zeigten ebenfalls erhöhte Genkopienzahlen, die durch Anzucht der Pflanzen auf Spectinomycin noch erhöht werden konnten. Dieses Ergebnis legt ein komplexes, regulatorisches Netzwerk nahe, in welchem sowohl Respiration als auch Photosynthese die Aufrechterhaltung einer stabilen Genkopienzahl innerhalb der Pflanzenzelle beeinflussen. Die Untersuchungen einer Spectinomycin-behandelter mt-GFP Arabidopsis Pflanzenlinie mittels CLSM zeigten einen Stillstand der Motilität der Mitochondrien in den epidermalen Zellen der weißen Kotyledonen, obwohl eine TEM Analyse eine normale, interne Morphologie ergab. Weitere Untersuchungen führten zu der Schlussfolgerung, dass es auch hier die Stärke der plastidären Beeinträchtigung, welche zu einem gelb-weißen Phänotyp führt, für den Arrest der Mobilität verantwortlich ist. / The plant mitochondrial genome has a complex structure. It exists in the form of a heterogeneous population of linear, often branched molecules with smaller than genome-size circular molecules being present in low abundance. In order to study the mitochondrial genome abundance and its regulation in plants under both standard and stress conditions, we determined the gene copy number of four representative mitochondrial genes using quantitative real-time PCR and flow-cytometry. Determination of mitochondrial gene copy number in different plant species and in organs of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana showed that the copy number of the four investigated genes varied between species and also between different organs, having the highest values in the root tips. The growth of Arabidopsis seedlings on MS medium containing spectinomycin (a plastid translation inhibitor) led to a three-fold increase in the copy number in white versus green seedlings, an effect that is leaf/cotyledon specific and light-independent. Respiration deficient mutants also showed an increase in the gene copy number, this effect being further amplified when the mutants were grown on spectinomycin. The data suggest a complex regulatory network in which both photosynthesis and respiration influence the maintenance of a stable mitochondrial gene copy number within plant cells. CLSM investigations of a spectinomycin-treated mt-GFP line showed that in epidermal cells of white cotyledons most of the mitochondria are not motile with TEM analysis presenting normal internal morphology. Further investigations led to the conclusion that the threshold level of chloroplast impairment that leads to a motility arrest is represented by the appearance of a yellow-white cotyledon phenotype. These results point to a new regulatory mechanism of mitochondrial dynamics that is directly influenced by impaired chloroplast development under standard growth conditions.