This thesis presents the results of investigations of the synthesis, structure and physical properties of multiferroic materials. Multiferroics are materials in which two or all three of ferroelectricity, ferromagnetism and ferroelasticity occur in the same phase. Such materials have the potential applications of their parent materials, as well as new ones because of the interaction between the order parameters. The thesis is organized into four sections. Section 1 gives an overview of multiferroics, explaining the origin of mul-tiferroicity , occurrence of magnetoelectric coupling, their possible technological ap-plications and the challenges involved. Section 2 gives the scope of the investigations. The specific objectives of the present research on yttrium chromite, heavy rare earth chromites, solid solutions of yttrium chromite, rare earth manganites doped with alkaline earth metals, charge-ordered rare earth ferrites and indium manganite are outlined. Experimental aspects of the work carried out are discussed in section 3. It gives details of the experimental set up and the basic operation principles of various structural and physical characterizations of the materials prepared. In section 4, results of the investigations are discussed. Magnetic and di-electric properties of yttrium chromite (YCrO3), heavy rare earth chromites and YCr1-xMnxO3 are reported in section 4.1. These materials show canted antiferro-magnetic behavior below the Nel transition temperatures and dielectric transitions at high temperatures. Role of local non-centrosymmetry is discussed based on high-resolution neutron powder diffraction data. In 4.2 we discuss the results of charge-ordered rare earth ferrites which show good magnetoelectric effect. Magnetic, dielectric and magneto-dielectric properties of YCr1-xMnxO3 (Ln = rare earth) are discussed in 4.3. These materials show magneto-dielectric effect. In 4.4 we discuss the near normal incidence far infrared reflectivity spectra of a single crystal of TbMnO3, in the spectral range of 50cm−1 to 700 cm−1 from 10 K to 300 K. Finally in 4.5, magnetic and dielectric properties of bulk and thin films of indium manganite are discussed.

Ce travail de thèse est principalement axé sur le développement d’une nouvelle méthode de manipulation de vortex d’Abrikosov individuels dans les supraconducteurs de type II. Cette méthode, rapide, efficace et précise, est basée sur l’optique en champ lointain et repose sur l’échauffement local du supraconducteur sous l’action d’un faisceau laser focalisé. Elle apporte une excellente alternative aux techniques existantes de manipulation de vortex, toutes basées sur l’utilisation de sondes locales, et donc intrinsèquement lentes et difficiles à mettre en oeuvre dans un environnement cryogénique. La combinaison de cette méthode à une technique d’imagerie magnéto-optique performante permet de déplacer des vortex individuels avec un taux de réussite de 100% et sur de grandes échelles limitées uniquement par le champ de l’objectif de microscope. Les vitesses de manipulation atteintes sont élevées, de l’ordre de 10 mm.s-1, mais encore limitées par l’instrumentation utilisée et loin des limites fondamentales offertes par cette méthode, estimées au km.s-1. La méthode de manipulation optique permet aussi de mesurer la distribution des forces de piégeage de chaque vortex d’un échantillon. En utilisant des puissances de chauffage laser permettant de dépasser localement la température critique, nous avons également pu étudier la pénétration des vortex à l’interface entre une zone normale et une zone supraconductrice.Durant ces travaux, nous avons aussi eu l’opportunité de mettre en évidence, par spectroscopie de molécules uniques, l’effet flexomagnétoélectrique dans un matériau multiferroïque, en employant un supraconducteur de type I comme générateur de champ magnétique inhomogène. Enfin, nous proposons à la fin de ce mémoire un concept de jonction Josephson créée tout optiquement, et dont les propriétés seraient contrôlables en temps réel par laser. / This thesis focuses on the development of a new manipulation technique to handle single Abrikosov vortices in type II superconductors. This fast, efficient and precise method is based on far field optics and rests on the local temperature elevation produced by a focused laser beam. It brings an excellent alternative to the existing techniques which are all based on local probes and thus heavy to implement in a cryogenic environment. The combination of this method with an efficient magneto-optical imaging system allows us to manipulate single vortices with a 100% rate of success on a large scale only limited by the field of view of the microscope objective. Manipulation speeds are high, of the order of 10 mm.s-1, but still limited by our setup and far from the fundamental limits offered by this technique, estimated to the km.s-1. This manipulation technique also allows to measure the pinning force of any single vortex in a superconducting sample. By using a high enough laser power which locally pushes the temperature above the critical temperature, we could also study the vortex penetration at the interface between normal and superconducting areas.In the course of this work, we also evidenced, with single molecule spectroscopy, the flexomagnetoelectric effect in a multiferoic material, by using a type I superconductor as a source of inhomogeneous magnetic field. Finally, we propose at the end of the manuscript the new concept of an optically created Josephson junctions, whose properties could be controlled in real time just with a laser beam.

Cette thèse expérimentale a permis d'étudier différents aspects des composés multiferroïques et magnétoélectriques et notamment l'influence des propriétés magnétiques sur les propriétés diélectriques et magnétoélectriques dans deux familles de composé : le trisulfure de phosphore de manganèse MnPS3 et les langasites au fer. Nous nous sommes aussi intéressés en détail aux propriétés de chiralité magnétique dynamique du composé Ba3NbFe3Si2O14 de cette dernière famille.Les langasites au fer présentent une structure cristalline non centrosymétrique et chirale. Les mesures macroscopiques d'aimantation et les expériences de diffraction de neutrons, y compris polarisés avec analyse de polarisation, ont permis de mettre en évidence une double chiralité magnétique (triangulaire et hélicoïdale). Les signatures de cette chiralité statique sont également observées dans les excitations magnétiques, notamment sous la forme d'une section efficace non nulle associée aux corrélations dynamiques antisymétriques. Ces résultats ont été interprétés à l'aide de calculs d'onde de spins conduits dans une approche linéaire. Enfin différentes échelles d'énergie ont été mises en évidence dans les fluctuations paramagnétiques avec en particulier des fluctuations magnétiques associées aux corrélations antisymétriques.Il a été mis en évidence dans le trisulfure de manganèse MnPS3 un ordre magnétique antiferromagnétique également associé à un moment toroïdal macroscopique non nul ainsi qu'un couplage magnétoélectrique non diagonal non nul. Ce couplage a été mis en évidence à l'aide d'une expérience de diffraction de neutrons polarisés avec une analyse de polarisation sphérique ce qui a permis de \og jouer\fg{} avec les domaines antiferromagnétiques de MnPS3 à l'aide de refroidissements au passage de la température de Néel sous des champs magnétique et électrique croisés. / This Phd report shows several aspects of multiferroic and magnetoelectric properties and especially the effect of magnetic properties on dielectric and magnetoelectric behavior of two families of compounds : the manganese trisulfure phosphorus MnPS3 and the iron langasite.We also present in details the magnetic dynamical chirality properties of the compound Ba3NbFe3Si2O14 of the langasite family.Iron langasites show a non centrosymetric and a chiral crystal structure. The macroscopic magnetization measurements and neutron scattering experiments, including the use of polarized neutrons and polarization analysis, have allowed to enlighten a double magnetic chirality (helical and triangular). This chirality has a signature in the magnetic excitations and notably by non zero cross sections associated to dynamical antisymmetric correlations of spins. Those results are interpreted by spin-wave calculations in a linear approach. At last, different energy scales appear in the paramagnetic fluctuations with, in particular, magnetic fluctuations associated to antisymmetric correlations.The MnPS3 manganese trisulfure compound exhibits an antiferromagnetic order with an non zero macroscopic toroidization and a non zero non diagonal magnetoelectric coupling. This coupling has been enlightened by spherical neutron polarimetry experiment. We played with antiferromagnetic domains by cooling the sample through its Néel température under crossed magnetic and electric fields.

Orientador: Prof. Dr. José Antonio Souza / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Física, 2014. / Neste trabalho, foram estudados tres sistemas de metais de oxidos de transicao os quais apresentam propriedades fisicas fortemente correlacionadas. O primeiro sistema foi uma serie da familia das manganitas La1-xCaxMnO3, com x = 0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.34, 0.40 e 0.45. Um estudo sistematico das propriedades magneticas e de transporte eletrico foi realizado nessa serie. O mecanismo de transporte eletrico usando o modelo de hopping de pequenos polarons no regime nao adiabatico foi revisitado considerando termos de ordem superior na equacao que descreve a probabilidade de hopping. Foi obtida uma equacao mais generica para descrever satisfatoriamente a dependencia com a temperatura da resistividade eletrica dos compostos com maior dopagem (x = 0.40 e 0.45). A analise dos parametros fisicos obtidos do ajuste indica que o regime nao adiabatico considerando termos de ordem superior e necessario para descrever o mecanismo de transporte eletrico em compostos com resistividade eletrica elevada. Por outro lado, um desvio da lei de Curie-Weiss foi observado no estado paramagnetico nesta serie indicando a presenca de interacoes magneticas de curto alcance. Um estudo sistematico do momento magnetico efetivo em funcao da temperatura e dos portadores de carga indica que tal desvio nao pode ser causado pela formacao de clusters ferromagneticos, onde os ions de Mn3+ e Mn4+ interagem via o mecanismo de dupla troca, como comumente sugerido na literatura. Os resultados revelam que os eletrons eg estao localizados no ion de Mn3+ independentemente da introducao de buracos no sistema sugerindo a presenca de interacoes magneticas do tipo supertroca. O segundo sistema estudado e a ferrita de bismuto com propriedades multiferroicas Bi2Fe4O9. A influencia da introducao de desordem quimica no composto Bi2Fe4O9, atraves da substituicao parcial do Fe pelo Mn [Bi2Fe4-xMnxO9+¿Ã, com x = 0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 e 4.0], sobre as propriedades fisicas foi investigada. Foi encontrado que a desordem quimica causa alteracoes em varias propriedades: (1) surgimento de uma coexistencia de duas fases cristalograficas tipo-Bi2Mn4O10 e tipo-Bi2Fe4O9 para x = 1.0 e 2.0; (2) inducao de uma transicao antiferromagnetica em temperaturas muito baixas onde a temperatura de Neel (TN) varia com x; (3) diminuicao do valor da resistividade eletrica alcancando o seu minimo valor em x = 3.0. Foi observado que o mecanismo de transporte eletrico de todas as amostras obedece ao regime adiabatico do modelo de hopping de pequenos polarons. A energia de ativacao e a frequencia de hopping de algumas amostras exibem uma alteracao em altas temperaturas. Foi sugerido que tais alteracoes sao induzidas devido a variacoes nas posicoes de equilibrio dos ions de oxigenio, caracterizadas atraves de medidas locais usando a tecnica de correlacao angular perturbada. Alem disso, um campo magnetico hiperfino foi encontrado, o qual surge devido a transicao antiferromagnetica de longo alcance das amostras Bi2Fe4O9 (250 K) e Bi2Mn4O10 (39 K). Evidencias do acoplamento magnetoeletrico nas amostras Bi2Fe4O9 e Bi2Mn4O10 foram reveladas atraves de uma variacao anomala na dependencia com a temperatura da frequencia quadrupolar (¿ËQ) e do parametro de assimetria (¿Å). O terceiro composto estudado e a ferrita de bismuto BiFeO3 a qual tambem exibe propriedades multiferroicas. Um estudo sistematico das propriedades magneticas e eletricas de nanoparticulas de BiFeO3 com dois tamanhos levemente diferentes (S1 e S2) foi realizado. Medidas de susceptibilidade magnetica em funcao da temperatura sugerem a presenca de um estado do tipo spin-glass em baixas temperaturas nas duas amostras. Foi mostrado que a presenca de fase magnetica espuria em porcentagens muito pequenas (nao detectaveis por difracao de raios x) pode afetar fortemente as propriedades magneticas e eletrica de nanoparticulas de BiFeO3. Mostrou-se que as propriedades eletricas (resistividade eletrica, impedancia, polarizacao e constate dieletrica) desse composto podem ser influenciadas pela adsorcao quimica e fisica de moleculas de agua na superficie da amostra. Medidas de resistividade eletrica obtidas em atmosfera ambiente revelaram que a principal contribuicao ao mecanismo de conducao e a delocalizacao de vacancias de oxigenio. Ja as medidas realizadas com fluxo de argonio mostraram uma queda abrupta em forma de cascata da resistividade eletrica em funcao da temperatura. Esse processo e reversivel com a diminuicao da temperatura sugerindo uma transicao de fase. Acredita-se que nas medidas em atmosfera ambiente, esse efeito e suprimido devido ao aumento da resistividade eletrica causado pela dessorcao de moleculas de agua em altas temperaturas. Alem disso, a polarizacao eletrica e constante dieletrica assumem valores colossais em altas temperaturas e baixas frequencias. / In this work, we have studied three systems of transition metal oxides which exhibit strongly correlated physical properties. The first system was the magnetoresistive series La1-xCaxMnO3, with x = 0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.34, 0.40 and 0.45. A systematic study of the magnetic and electrical transport properties has been done in this series. The non-adiabatic regime of the small polaron model was revisited considering higher order terms in the hopping probability equation. We have obtained a more general equation in order to describe the temperature dependence of the electrical resistivity for compounds with higher doping (x = 0.40 to 0:45). The analysis of the physical parameters obtained from the fitting indicates that the non-adiabatic regime with higher order terms is needed to describe the electric transport mechanism in compounds with high electrical resistivity. On the other hand, it was observed a deviation from the Curie-Weiss law in the paramagnetic state indicating the presence of short-range magnetic interactions in this series. A systematic study of the effective magnetic moment as a function of temperature and charge carriers indicates that such deviation may not be caused by the formation of ferromagnetic clusters, where the ions Mn3+ and Mn4+ interact via double exchange mechanism, as commonly suggested in the literature. The results reveal that electrons eg are localized in the Mn3+ ion regardless of the introduction of holes in the system suggesting the presence of super-exchange like magnetic interactions. The second studied system was the bismuth ferrite Bi2Fe4O9 with multiferroic properties. The influence of the chemical disorder, produced by partial substitution of Fe in the Mn-site [Bi2Fe4-xMnxO9+å, with x = 0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0], on the physical properties of Bi2Fe4O9 was studied. We have found that several physical properties are altered by the chemical disorder: (1) appearance of coexistence of two crystallographic phases Bi2Fe4O9-type and Bi2Mn4O10-type for x = 1.0 and 2.0; (2) presence of an antiferromagnetic transition at very low temperatures where the Neel temperature (TN) depends on x; (3) reduction of electrical resistivity value which reaches its minimum value at x = 3.0. It has been observed that the electric transport mechanism for all samples follows the adiabatic regime of the small polaron model. Interesting, the values of the activation energy and hopping frequency of some samples are not constant. We suggested that this result is caused by variation in the equilibrium positions of oxygen ions. Such variations were characterized by using the perturbed angular correlation local technique. Furthermore, we have observed that a hyperfine magnetic field arises simultaneously with the long-range antiferromagnetic transition in the samples Bi2Fe4O9 (TN = 250 K) and Bi2Mn4O10 (TN = 39 K). An anomalous behavior in the temperature dependence of the quadrupolar frequency (íQ) and asymmetry parameter (ç) provided evidence about the existence of magnetoelectric coupling in the compounds Bi2Fe4O9 and Bi2Mn4O10. The third studied system was the bismuth ferrite BiFeO3 which also exhibits multiferroic properties. We have performed an electrical and magnetic properties comprehensive study on two sets of BiFeO3 nanoparticles with slightly different sizes (S1 and S2). It was observed that the presence of spurious magnetic phase in very small amounts (not detectable by x-ray diffraction) can strongly affect the magnetic and electrical properties of BiFeO3 nanoparticles. We have also observed that the electrical properties (resistivity, impedance, polarization, and dielectric constant) of this compound can be influenced by chemical and physical adsorption of water molecules on the sample surface. Furthermore, the analysis of the electrical resistivity measurements obtained at ambient atmosphere suggests that the delocalization of oxygen vacancies is the main contribution to the transport mechanism. On the other hand, the measurements obtained with argon flow revealed that the electrical resistivity undergoes an abrupt decrease such as cascade-like behavior. This process is reversible on warming and cooling curves suggesting a phase transition. We believe that in the measurements obtained at ambient atmosphere, this effect is suppressed due to increase of the electrical resistivity caused by desorption of water molecules at high temperatures. The electrical polarization and dielectric constant exhibit colossal values at high temperatures and low frequencies.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / No presente trabalho investigamos as propriedades do composto multiferrÃico Bi5FeTi3O15 (BFTO) em funÃÃo da temperatura e pressÃo atravÃs das tÃcnicas de espectroscopia Raman e infravermelho (IR). Os modos Raman observados em baixa frequÃncia estÃo relacionados com os Ãtomos de Bi no sÃtio A. Os modos em alta frequÃncia estÃo relacionados à deformaÃÃo e estiramento dos octaedros (Ti/Fe)O6. A anÃlise do espectro a baixas temperaturas mostrou que os modos nÃo apresentam mudanÃas em seu comportamento exceto por uma tendÃncia a degenerescÃncia apresentada pelo material devido à agitaÃÃo tÃrmica. TambÃm foi possÃvel observar que o antiferromagnetismo à estÃvel e mantido pela interaÃÃo spin-fÃnon. O espectro Raman em funÃÃo de altas temperaturas mostrou divergÃncia em relaÃÃo aos resultados reportados na literatura anteriormente, bem como uma transiÃÃo de fase intermediÃria por volta de 800 K evidenciada pelo comportamento soft mode do modo em 27cm-1. Os espectros Raman em funÃÃo da pressÃo sugerem que o BFTO sofre transiÃÃes de fase em torno 1,0 GPa, 2,0 GPa, 3,0 GPa, 7,5 GPa e 10,5 GPa. / In this work we investigate the properties of the multiferroic compound Bi5FeTi3O15 (BFTO) as a function of temperature and pressure using Raman and infrared (IR) spectroscopy. The Raman modes observed show that the low-frequency bands are related to the Bi atoms in A sites. The high-frequency modes are related to the bending and stretching of the (Ti/Fe)O6 octahedra. The analysis of the low-temperature spectra showed that the modes do not present changes in their behavior except for a tendency to degeneration due to thermal agitation. Also, it was possible to observe that the antiferromagnetism is stable and maintained by a spin-phonon interaction. The Raman spectra at high-temperatures showed deviation in relation to the results reported in the literature and an intermediate phase transition around 800 K as evidenced by a soft mode behavior of the mode at 27 cm-1. The Raman spectra as a function of pressure suggest that BFTO undergoes phase transitions around 1.0 GPa, 2.0 GPa, 3.0 GPa, 7.5 GPa and 10.5 GPa.

Orientadores: Gustavo Fernandes Lopes, Eduardo Granado Monteiro da Silva / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Fisica Gleb Wataghin / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-14T22:47:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Fabbris_GilbertoFernandesLopes_M.pdf: 3782519 bytes, checksum: d66cd36be4756310d108388eaef23b5e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: Materiais multiferróicos apresentam pelo menos duas propriedades ferróicas na mesma temperatura: (anti) ferroeletricidade, (anti) ferromagnetismo, ou ferroelasticidade. Esses materiais têm atraído grande atenção da comunidade científica nos últimos anos devido às suas potenciais aplicações e ao complexo acoplamento entre suas propriedades, o que ainda não é bem compreendido. Neste trabalho, nos concentramos nos materiais multiferróicos da família RMn2O5, que possuem estrutura ortorrômbica com grupo espacial Pbam. Nestes compostos, a transição antiferromagnética acontece a ~40K e a ferroelétrica em torno de 39K para todos os membros da família. A ferroeletricidade vista nesse material é incompatível com o centro de simetria existente no grupo espacial Pbam. Resultados de EXAFS para o composto TbMn2O5 existentes na literatura indicam uma distribuição bimodal de Tb-O na primeira camada de coordenação. Este desdobramento da primeira camada de coordenação independe da temperatura e indica uma possível variação do grupo espacial Pbam. Tais resultados nos motivaram a empreender o estudo da estrutura local da família RMn2O5 a fim de entendermos a correlação entre a estrutura local e a natureza do íon R. Medidas do espectro de XAFS como função da temperatura foram realizadas na linha XAFS2 do Laboratório Nacional de Luz Síncrotron (LNLS). Foram realizadas varreduras na borda K do Mn e em torno da borda L3 dos íons R (Bi, Gd, Pr, Tb). Os resultados para a borda do manganês em todos os compostos indicam que os poliedros de MnO são rígidos. Já na borda do íon R há comportamentos distintos. Enquanto no composto com bismuto observamos uma possível vibração rígida dos poliedros de MnO, para os outros compostos estudados identificamos uma distorção rígida desses poliedros. O comportamento distinto do composto com Bi, em relação aos demais membros da família, parece estar relacionado ao lone pair do bismuto / Abstract: Multiferroic materials present, at the same temperature, at least two of the so-called ferroic properties: (anti) ferroelectricity, (anti) ferromagnetism and ferroelasticity. They have attracted great attention in the last few years due to their potential applications as well as from the basic science point of view, given the intricate coupling between their physical properties, which remains poorly understood. In this work, we have focused on the study of the RMn2O5 family multiferroic materials. Their crystalline structure belongs to the Pbam orthorhombic space group, with an antiferromagnetic and ferroelectric phase transition temperatures below 40 K and 39K, respectively. Such ferroelectric phase is incompatible with the inversion center of symmetry in the Pbam space group. Recently published EXAFS results for TbM n2O5 revealed a first coordination shell with a bimodal Tb-O bond length distribution. Such bond length splitting is temperature-independent and may be related to a change of the Pbam space group. Such results were our main motivation to undertake a systematic study of the local structure of the RMn2O5 multiferroic family, aiming at a better understanding the correlation between the ion R and the local structure. Mn K-Edge and R-ion L3 Edge (R=Bi, Gd, Pr, Tb) temperature-dependent XAFS measurements were performed at the Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory XAFS2 beam line. Results for the Mn K-edge in all studied compounds reveal the Mn-O coordination polyhedral are rigid. The R-ion results reveal distinct behaviours. For the R=Bi compound, we identified that low energy Mn-O rigid unit vibrational modes are likely to be operative. For the other compounds, we have identified a rigid distortion of the Mn-O polyhedra. The distinct behavior of the BiMn2O5 seems to be related to the Bi 6s2 lone pair / Mestrado / Física da Matéria Condensada / Mestre em Física

Les oxydes de métaux de transition sont largement utilisés en raison de leurs propriétés fondamentales intéressantes et de leurs applications importantes. En particulier, CuCrO2 est d’un intérêt particulier parce qu’il possède un état multiferroïque en absence de champ magnétique. Dans cette thèse, nous modélisons les propriétés magnéto-électriques de CuCrO2 par simulations Monte Carlo basées sur des paramètres magnétiques déterminés par calculs ab initio. Nous étudions également l’effet du dopage du Ga sur les propriétés magnéto-électriques du composé CuCr1-xGaxO2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 0:3). Nos résultats sontqualitativement en accord avec les observations expérimentales. / Transition metal oxides are widely used due to their interesting fundamental properties and important applications. In particular, CuCrO2 is of special interest because it enters the multiferroic state in zero magnetic fields. In this thesis we model the magnetoelectric properties of CuCrO2 using Monte Carlo simulations with the help of ab initio calculations.We also investigate the effect of Ga doping on the magnetoelectric properties of CuCr1-xGaxO2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 0:3). Our results are well comparable to the experimental observations.

Skyrmions are spin textures with particle character that order themselves into so-called “skyrmion lattices” (SkLs). A skyrmion is topologically nontrivial, which adds stability against external perturbations and attracts tremendous interest from the theoretical side. Since skyrmions can be moved with small electrical currents, they are being discussed for novel spintronic applications, such as racetrack memory. Further interest has been spurred by the discovery of multiferroic compounds that also host SkLs, resulting in additional properties that are highly interesting both for applications and for fundamental research. The scope of this thesis encompasses the investigation of two completely different exemplary SkL-hosting multiferroic systems using a broad set of scanning probe microscopy techniques. These can probe multiple properties on a local scale in real space with a single measurement, examining details not resolved by non-local techniques. In the first part, there is a brief introduction to magnetic skyrmions and scanning probe microscopy with a short review of the theoretical background. The materials of interest and their known properties are then introduced. These are Cu2OSeO3, an insulator exhibiting the emergence of Bloch-type skyrmions as well as type-II multiferroicity, and the lacunar spinel chalcogenides, which were recently found to exhibit multiferroic Néel-type skyrmions pinned to magnetic easy-axes/planes together with type-I multiferroicity originating from a structural Jahn–Teller transition. The second part first presents various scanning probe studies and their results for Cu2OSeO3, where, aside from the magnetic textures of the various magnetic phases, the magnetoelectric effect and the magnetic phase transitions are investigated and described with basic theoretical models. Results show a good correlation between observations and theory, as well as with other experimental methods. Various lacunar spinels are then investigated, mostly GaV4S8 and GaMo4S8. Observation of the structural phase transition leads to the observation of {100}-type domain boundaries compatible with the compatibility critera based on crystal geometry. Furthermore, measurements of the magnetic textures of the different magnetic phases for GaV4S8 are presented and analysed. Results highlight a pinning of the pitch vector to the magnetic hard plane, and that the structural domain boundaries are by necessity magnetic domain boundaries. Analysing the influence of surface anisotropy and structural domain boundaries reveals a strong effect of both on the formation of magnetic patterns in their vicinity. Finally, the magnetoelectric effect of different lacunar spinels is investigated by measuring the surface potential with changing magnetic fields leading to a hysteretic behaviour in all materials.:Abstract/Kurzdarstellung 1 Introduction – Skyrmions meet Multiferroicity 2 Magnetic Skyrmion Lattices 2.1 What is a Skyrmion? 2.2 Formation of Skyrmion Lattices 2.2.1 Basic Considerations 2.2.2 Emergence of Skyrmion Lattices 2.3 General Properties of Skyrmions 2.4 Ways to Observe Skyrmions 3 Scanning Probe Microscopy 3.1 General Aspects 3.2 SPM in Contact Mode 3.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.2 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.3 Piezoresponse Force Microscopy 3.3 SPM in Non-Contact Mode 3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.3.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 3.3.3 Magnetic Force Microscopy 3.4 About Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 3.4.1 Possible Origins of Dissipation 3.4.2 Measuring Dissipation 3.4.3 Mathematical Background 3.5 Experimental Setup 4 Investigated Materials 4.1 Cubic copper(II)-oxo-selenite Cu2O(SeO3) 4.2 Lacunar Spinel Chalcogenides 4.2.1 General Aspects and Materials Chosen 4.2.2 Structural Phase Transition and Expected Piezoresponse 4.2.3 Magnetic Phase Transition 4.2.4 Investigated Crystals 5 Investigations on Cu2OSeO3 5.1 Observing the Different Magnetic Phases 5.1.1 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Magnetic Force Microscopy 5.1.2 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 5.2 Analysis of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.2.1 Observing the Magnetoelectric Effect with KPFM 5.2.2 Heuristic Description of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.3 Analysing the Magnetic Phase Transitions with SPM 5.3.1 Motivation from Theory 5.3.2 Distinguishing the Helical, Conical and Field-Polarised Phases 5.3.3 The Helical–Conical Phase Transition 5.3.4 Passing through the Conical Phase 6 Investigations on GaV4S8 6.1 Observing the Structural Phase Transition 6.1.1 Results from nc-AFM 6.1.2 Results from ct-AFM and PFM 6.2 Observing the Magnetic Phases 6.3 Analysing the Magnetic SDM Images 6.3.1 Theoretical Considerations 6.3.2 Rescaling from the Measured to the Magnetic Hard Plane 6.3.3 Influence of the Surface on the Patterns Observed 6.4 Influence of Structural Domain Walls on Magnetic Patterns 7 Further Investigation on Lacunar Spinels 7.1 Investigations on GaMo4S8 7.1.1 Experimental Results 7.1.2 Theoretical Considerations 7.1.3 Evaluation of the Experimental Data 7.2 Magnetoelectric Effect of Lacunar Spinels 8 Remarks About Magnetic Non-Contact Dissipation 9 Summary and Outlook 9.1 Synopsis 9.2 Outlook – Probing the Future A Permissions For Usage of Content B Some Additional Information on Non-Contact Dissipation C Bonus Images Bibliography Publications Acknowledgements Erklärung / Skyrmionen sind teilchenartige Spintexturen, welche sich in sogenannten Skyrmionengittern anordnen. Jedes Skyrmion besitzt eine topologische Ladung. Dieses Konzept ist von bedeutendem Interesse für die Theorie und führt zu zusätzlicher Stabilität gegen externe Störungen. Da Skyrmionen mit geringen elektrischen Strömen bewegt werden können, sind sie auch Kanditaten für neuartige, spintronische Anwendungen wie den Racetrack-Speicher. Zusätzlich wurden vor einiger Zeit multiferroische Materialien entdeckt, welche ebenso Skyrmionengitter bilden und aufgrund dessen weitere, interessante Eigenschaften besitzen, welche sowohl für Anwendungen als auch für die Grundlagenforschung interessant sind. Inhalt dieser Dissertation ist die Untersuchung zweier verschiedener, exemplarischer multiferroischer Materialien mit Skyrmiongitterphasen mittels verschiedener Rastersondentechniken. Dies erlaubt das gleichzeitige Erfassen mehrerer Parameter auf einer lokalen Skala im Realraum mit einer einzigen Messung und somit die Untersuchung von Details, welche durch nicht-lokale Techniken nicht erfasst werden können. Im ersten Teil wird eine kurze Einleitung über magnetische Skyrmionen und die Rastersondenmikroskopie sowie Abrisse über deren theoretischen Hintergrund gegeben. Im Anschluß werden die untersuchten Materialien und deren Eigenschaften vorgestellt. Das erste System ist Cu2OSeO3, ein Isolator, welcher Bloch-artige Skyrmionengitter formiert und ein Typ-II Multiferroikum ist. Weitere Systeme gehören zur Klasse der lakunären Spinell-Chalkogenide, welche nach neuesten Erkenntnissen multiferroische Néel-artige Skyrmionen formieren, deren Modulationsvektor zur magnetisch harten Achse/Ebene fixiert ist. Ebenso sind diese aufgrund eines strukturellen Jahn-Teller Überganges Typ-I Multiferroika. Im zweiten Teil werden verschiedene Rastersondenuntersuchungen und ihre Ergebnisse präsentiert. Beginnend mit Cu2OSeO3, werden, neben den den magnetische Texturen der verschiedenen magnetischen Phasen, der magnetoelektrische Effekt und der helisch-konische Phasenübergang untersucht sowie mit grundlegenden theoretischen Modellen verglichen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine gute Übereinstimmung zwischen den Beobachtungen und der Theorie sowie mit anderen Meßmethoden. Im Anschluß werden verschiedene lakunäre Spinell-Chalkogenide, vor allem GaV4S8 und GaMo4S8, untersucht. Beobachtungen des strukturellen Phasenüberganges ergeben die Formierung von {100}-artigen Domänenwänden, welche mit den Vorhersagen der Kompatibilitätskriterien resultierend aus der Kristallgeometrie übereinstimmen. Des Weiteren werden Messungen der magnetischen Texturen der verschiedenen magnetischen Phasen von GaV4S8 präsentiert sowie analysiert. Die Ergebnisse heben hervor, daß der Modulationsvektor an der magnetisch harten Ebene fixiert ist und daß die strukturellen Domänengrenzen notwendigerweise auch die magnetischen Domänengrenzen sein müssen. Eine Analyse des Einflusses der Oberflächenanisotropie sowie der strukturellen Domänengrenzen zeigt eine starke Wirkung beider auf die Formierung magnetischer Texturen in ihrer Nähe. Schließlich wird der magnetoelektrische Effekt der lakunären Spinell-Chalkogenide durch Messung des Oberflächenpotentiales als Funktion des angelegten Magnetfeldes untersucht. Beobachtungen ergeben ein hysteretisches Verhalten in allen Materialen.:Abstract/Kurzdarstellung 1 Introduction – Skyrmions meet Multiferroicity 2 Magnetic Skyrmion Lattices 2.1 What is a Skyrmion? 2.2 Formation of Skyrmion Lattices 2.2.1 Basic Considerations 2.2.2 Emergence of Skyrmion Lattices 2.3 General Properties of Skyrmions 2.4 Ways to Observe Skyrmions 3 Scanning Probe Microscopy 3.1 General Aspects 3.2 SPM in Contact Mode 3.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.2 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.3 Piezoresponse Force Microscopy 3.3 SPM in Non-Contact Mode 3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.3.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 3.3.3 Magnetic Force Microscopy 3.4 About Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 3.4.1 Possible Origins of Dissipation 3.4.2 Measuring Dissipation 3.4.3 Mathematical Background 3.5 Experimental Setup 4 Investigated Materials 4.1 Cubic copper(II)-oxo-selenite Cu2O(SeO3) 4.2 Lacunar Spinel Chalcogenides 4.2.1 General Aspects and Materials Chosen 4.2.2 Structural Phase Transition and Expected Piezoresponse 4.2.3 Magnetic Phase Transition 4.2.4 Investigated Crystals 5 Investigations on Cu2OSeO3 5.1 Observing the Different Magnetic Phases 5.1.1 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Magnetic Force Microscopy 5.1.2 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 5.2 Analysis of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.2.1 Observing the Magnetoelectric Effect with KPFM 5.2.2 Heuristic Description of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.3 Analysing the Magnetic Phase Transitions with SPM 5.3.1 Motivation from Theory 5.3.2 Distinguishing the Helical, Conical and Field-Polarised Phases 5.3.3 The Helical–Conical Phase Transition 5.3.4 Passing through the Conical Phase 6 Investigations on GaV4S8 6.1 Observing the Structural Phase Transition 6.1.1 Results from nc-AFM 6.1.2 Results from ct-AFM and PFM 6.2 Observing the Magnetic Phases 6.3 Analysing the Magnetic SDM Images 6.3.1 Theoretical Considerations 6.3.2 Rescaling from the Measured to the Magnetic Hard Plane 6.3.3 Influence of the Surface on the Patterns Observed 6.4 Influence of Structural Domain Walls on Magnetic Patterns 7 Further Investigation on Lacunar Spinels 7.1 Investigations on GaMo4S8 7.1.1 Experimental Results 7.1.2 Theoretical Considerations 7.1.3 Evaluation of the Experimental Data 7.2 Magnetoelectric Effect of Lacunar Spinels 8 Remarks About Magnetic Non-Contact Dissipation 9 Summary and Outlook 9.1 Synopsis 9.2 Outlook – Probing the Future A Permissions For Usage of Content B Some Additional Information on Non-Contact Dissipation C Bonus Images Bibliography Publications Acknowledgements Erklärung

L'effet magnétoélectrique direct est défini par la modification de la polarisation électrique à partir de l'application d'un champ magnétique. Bien que cet effet existe de manière intrinsèque dans certains matériaux, nous étudions ici l'effet extrinsèque, où l'effet magnétoélectrique résulte d'un couplage intermédiaire entre deux phases distinctes. Dans ce cas, l'idée la plus répandue est de lier mécaniquement (par un collage) un matériau piézoélectrique à un matériau magnétostrictif. Ainsi, en appliquant un champ magnétique, le matériau magnétostrictif se déforme, transmet une contrainte au matériau piézoélectrique qui voit sa polarisation changer. Dans cette thèse nous nous intéressons à deux types de composites magnétoélectriques laminaires. Ceux employant les ferrites magnétostrictifs doux (ferrite de nickel) et ceux qui utilisent les ferrites semi-durs (ferrite de cobalt). Pour chacun des composites, on s'intéresse à optimiser l'effet magnétoélectrique en mettant en avant les paramètres qui l'influencent majoritairement. De ce fait, nous traitons différents aspects tels que l'influence de l'effet démagnétisant dans les multicouches, de la fraction volumique des composites, des phases secondaires, de la magnétostriction dynamique, de l'anisotropie magnétique uniaxe, et enfin de la fréquence et de l'amplitude du champ d'excitation magnétique sur l'effet magnétoélectrique. Grâce à la compréhension de ces phénomènes, nous avons pu optimiser le couplage magnétoélectrique de manière à développer un capteur de courant présentant des caractéristiques comparables aux capteurs de courant actuellement commercialisés et qui utilisent d'autres technologies (effet Hall, transformateur de courant). / The direct magnetoelectric effect is defined by the modification of the electric polarization induced by a magnetic field. Although this effect exists intrinsically in some materials, here we study the extrinsic effect, where the magnetoelectric effect results from an intermediate coupling between two distinct phases. In this case, the most common idea is to mechanically couple (by gluing) a piezoelectric material to a magnetostrictive material. Thus, by applying a magnetic field, the magnetostrictive material is deformed and transmits a stress to the piezoelectric material which makes its polarization change.In this thesis, we are interested in two types of laminar magnetoelectric composites: those using soft magnetostrictive ferrites (nickel ferrite) and those using semi-hard ferrites (cobalt ferrite). For each composites, we want to optimize the magnetoelectric effect by highlighting the parameters that mainly influence this coupling. As a result, we deal with different aspects such as the influence of the demagnetizing effect in multilayers, the volume fraction in the composites, the secondary phases, the dynamic magnetostriction, the uniaxial magnetic anisotropy, and finally the frequency and the amplitude of the magnetic exciting field on the magnetoelectric effect. Thanks to the understanding of the physical phenomena involved and the optimization of the resulting magnetoelectric coupling, we have been able to develop a current sensor with characteristics comparable to currently marketed current sensors that use other technologies (Hall effect, current transformer).

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