Three studies were conducted to achieve the following respective objectives: 1) to determine the cellular mechanism by which growth hormone (GH) stimulates skeletal muscle growth; 2) to identify the signaling pathways that mediate the different effects of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) on skeletal muscle growth; and 3) to determine the role of a functionally unknown gene named SH3 and cysteine rich domain 3 (STAC3) in myogenesis. In the first study, the myogenic precursor cells, satellite cells, were isolated from cattle and allowed to proliferate as myoblasts or induced to fuse into myotubes in culture. GH increased protein synthesis without affecting protein degradation in myotubes; GH had no effect on proliferation of myoblasts; GH had no effect on IGF-I mRNA expression in either myoblasts or myotubes. These data suggest that GH stimulates skeletal muscle growth in cattle in part through stimulation of protein synthesis and that this stimulation is not mediated through increased IGF-I mRNA expression in the muscle. In the second study, the signaling pathways mediating the effects of IGF-I on proliferation of bovine myoblasts and protein synthesis and degradation in bovine myotubes were identified by adding to the culture medium rapamycin, LY294002, and PD98059, which are specific inhibitors of the signaling molecules mTOR, AKT, and ERK, respectively. The effectiveness of these inhibitors was confirmed by Western blotting. Proliferation of bovine myoblasts was stimulated by IGF-I, and this stimulation was partially blocked by PD98059 and completely blocked by rapamycin or LY294002. Protein degradation in myotubes was inhibited by IGF-I and this inhibition was completely relieved by LY294002, but not by rapamycin or PD98059. Protein synthesis in myotubes was increased by IGF-I, and this increase was completely blocked by rapamycin, LY294002, or PD98059. These data demonstrate that IGF-I stimulates proliferation of bovine myoblasts and protein synthesis in bovine myotubes through both the PI3K/AKT and the MAPK signaling pathways and that IGF-I inhibits protein degradation in bovine myotubes through the PI3K/AKT pathway only. In the third study, the potential roles of STAC3 in myoblast proliferation, differentiation, and fusion were investigated. Overexpression of STAC3 inhibited differentiation of C2C12 cells (a murine myoblast cell line) and fusion of these cells into myotubes, whereas knockdown of STAC3 had the opposite effects. Either STAC3 overexpression or STAC3 knockdown had no effect on proliferation of C2C12 cells. Myoblasts from STAC3-deficient mouse embryos had a greater ability to fuse into myotubes than control myoblasts; the former cells also expressed more mRNAs for the myogenic regulators MyoD and myogenin and the adult myosin heavy chain protein MyHC1 than the latter. These results suggest that STAC3 inhibits myoblast differentiation and fusion. / Ph. D.

A leishmaniose é um grupo de doenças causadas por parasitos do gênero Leishmania com três manifestações clínicas principais: cutânea, mucocutânea e visceral. No Brasil, a leishmaniose é um importante problema de saúde pública pela alta incidência. O ciclo de vida da Leishmania envolve dois estágios principais de desenvolvimento, o promastigota que está presente no vetor, e o amastigota que é intracelular obrigatório do hospedeiro vertebrado. Este protozoário apresenta um alto grau de promiscuidade em quanto ao tipo de célula hospedeira, já que consegue infectar várias células do sistema imune como neutrófilos, macrófagos e células dendríticas, e também células não fagocíticas profissionais. Além disso, Leishmania pode infectar fibras musculares, como tem sido reportado em trabalhos prévios por meio de analises histológicas. Porém, as características da infecção por Leishmania no músculo têm sido pouco estudadas, o que permitiria estabelecer a importância destas células durante a infecção. O objetivo deste projeto foi avaliar as características biológicas da infecção por promastigotas de L. (L.) amazonensis em células musculares esqueléticas (SkMCs). Para atingir isso, camundongos C57BL/6 e BALB/c foram infectados nas patas traseiras, o musculo Flexor Digitorum Brevis (FDB) foi extraído e processado para coloração com hematoxilina/eosina ou imunohistoquímica. Culturas de SkMCs como mioblastos e miotubos foram infectadas com promastigotas metacíclicos de L. (L.) amazonensis por 72h. As infecções foram caracterizadas por meio de imunofluorescência indireta e microscopia confocal. As culturas de SkMCs foram caracterizadas e padronizadas por médio das proteínas Caveolina-1 e Caveolina-3, também foi medido o Ph dos vacúolos parasitóforos de mioblastos e miotubos com laranja de acridina (AO). Adicionalmente, culturas de SkMCs como miotubos foram pré-tratadas com Streptolisina O (SLO) e/ou infectadas com promastigotas metacíclicos de L. (L.) amazonensis por 72h, com o intuito de esclarecer como ocorre a entrada do parasito nas células musculares. Neste caso foi avaliada a produção de IL-1&#946;, IL-6, IL-10 e NO. Além disso, foi quantificado o mRNA de IL1&#946;, IL-6, iNOS, Ama2, UbH e Lyst. A infecção de células mostrou que L. (L.) amazonensis consegue infectar as fibras musculares in vivo, e também as células musculares esqueléticas (mioblastos e miotubos) in vitro. Além disso, o teste de viabilidade mostrou que L. (L.) amazonensis permanece viável dentro do vacúolo parasitóforo após 72h de infecção. Finalmente, foi observado que o tratamento com SLO pode favorecer a entrada do parasito nas SkMCs, como foi evidenciado pelas diferencias no nível de mRNA entre as células infectadas ou infectadas e tratadas com SLO. Os dados em conjunto sugerem que L. (L.) amazonensis tem a capacidade de infectar as células musculares esqueléticas, dado que consegue entrar nestas células, e permanecer viável dentro do vacúolo parasitóforo. A presença do parasito dentro das células induz uma resposta imune no músculo que pode estar relacionada com os processos de reparo do tecido. A entrada de L. (L.) amazonensis nas células musculares esqueléticas durante a infecção no hospedeiro mamífero é importante devido a sua capacidade de manter o parasito viável. / Leishmaniasis is a group of diseases caused by parasites from genus Leishmania. The main clinical manifestations are cutaneous, mucocutaneus and visceral leishmaniasis. In Brazil, leishmaniasis is an important public health problem because of the high incidence. The Leishmania life cycle has two principal developing stages: promastigote inside the insect vector, and amastigote, an obligate intracellular parasite of vertebrate-host cells. This protozoan is highly promiscuous in host cell type, because it infects different immune cells like neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells, and also non-professional phagocytes. Besides, Leishmania might infect muscle fibers, as previous studies suggested from histological analysis. However, the characteristics of Leishmania infection in muscle cells is poorly understood, which is important to understand the role of these cells during the infection. The aim of this study was to characterize the infection process by promastigotes of <i.>L. (L.) amazonensis in skeletal muscle cells (SkMCs). C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice were infected in hind footpads, the Flexor Digitorum Brevis (FDB) muscle was extracted and process to dyed with hematoxylin/eosin or immunohistochemistry. SkMCs as myoblasts and myotubes were infected with metaciclic promastigotes of L. (L.) amazonensis during 72h. The infections were characterized using indirect immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. SkMCs culture were characterized and standardized through Caveolin-1 and Caveolin-3 proteins, and the pH of parasitophorous vacuoles both in myoblasts and myotubes was measured through acridine orange staining. In order to assess how the parasite invades the cells, myotubes were pretreated with SLO and/or infected with metaciclic promastigotes of L. (L.) amazonensis for 72h. The production of IL-1&#946;, IL-6, IL-10 and NO was quantified, and the mRNA levels of IL-1&#946;, IL-6, iNOS, Ama2, UbH and Lyst. The cell infection showed that L. (L.) amazonensis can infect muscle fibers in vivo, and skeletal muscle cells in vitro. Moreover, viability test showed the parasite remains viable inside the parasitophorous vacuole until 72h of infection. Finally, the SLO treatment can favor parasite entrance in SkMCs, as evidenced by differences in mRNA levels between infected cells or infected and treated with SLO. All data suggest that L. (L.) amazonensis can infect skeletal muscle cells, by entering into the cells, and remaining viable inside the parasitophorous vacuole. The parasite presence inside the muscle cells triggers an immune response that may be related with muscle repair processes. The entrance of L. (L.) amazonensis into SkMCs during infection in a mammal host is important because it contribute with parasite proliferation.

Insulin signalling is an essential process in humans by which the level of plasma glucose is maintained within the physiologically healthy range. Insulin activates the phosphoinositide 3 kinase (PI3K) signalling pathway that generates the phospholipid messenger PtdIns(3,4,5)P3, which in turn enhances the activity of two important proteins, AKT and Rac1. This then leads to increase the presence of the glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) at the plasma membrane that enhances the intake of glucose, particularly in skeletal muscle cells and adipocytes. Insulin signalling also triggers interconversion of several other phosphoinositides (PIs) which play pivotal roles in different steps of glucose regulation. PtdIns5P is an important PI that is robustly increased after insulin treatment in the skeletal muscle cell line, L6 myotubes. Many of PtdIns5P`s functions are not fully understood. To gain more knowledge of the role of PtdIns5P in insulin signalling in muscle cells, the PtdIns5P kinase phosphatidylinositol-5-phosphate 4-kinase a (PIP4K2a) was over-expressed in L6 myotubes as a way of removing PtdIns5P, and the consequences in insulin signalling were studied. Although PtdIns5P is converted by PIP4K2a to PtdIns(4,5)P2 which is a precursor of the potent PI PtdIns(3,4,5)P3, previous studies revealed that the increase in PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 induced by insulin in control cells is diminished in cells overexpressing PIP4K2a, for unknown reasons. Additionally, although the phosphorylation of the serine/threonine protein kinase AKT was not affected in these L6 cells, glucose uptake was attenuated. The current study investigates the possible causes of attenuating glucose uptake in PIP4K overexpressing myotubes by examining the small GTPase Rac1 which plays an important role in the cytoskeleton re-arrangement that is necessary for GLUT4 translocation. Furthermore, the possible roles of PI phosphatases that may cause the disturbance on the levels of PIs in response to insulin were evaluated. Additionally, the potential role of PtdIns5P in Rac1 activation in L6 myotubes was further investigated by delivering synthetic PtdIns5P using a carrier-based delivery approach. The results showed that the attenuation of glucose uptake documented in previous studies occurred as a result of a defect in the process of translocating GLUT4 from intracellular storage to the plasma membrane. Rac1 activity was significantly reduced in cells expressing PIP4K2a. Quantifying the level of PIs suggested that PIP4K2a expression increases the removal of PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 by the PI 5-phosphatase, SKIP. Silencing the expression of SKIP by siRNA restored the level of PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 but Rac1 activity and the attenuation GLUT4 translocation were not rescued possibly as a result of removing PtdIns5P by PIP4K2a. On the other hand, exogenous delivery of PtdIns5P in L6 myotubes activates both Rac1 and GLUT4 translocation in the absence of insulin. However, activating GLUT4 translocation by the exogenous PtdIns5P requires PI3K activity since redistribution of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane is inhibited by the PI3K inhibitor, wortmannin. Removing PtdIns5P reduces Rac1 activity and stimulates SKIP that inhibits PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 increase which attenuates GLUT4 translocation and hence glucose uptake. These results emphasise the critical role played by PtdIns5P which seems to serve as a regulator of insulin signalling, both directly and/or by regulating other enzymes involved in the metabolism of PIs.

A leishmaniose é um grupo de doenças causadas por parasitos do gênero Leishmania com três manifestações clínicas principais: cutânea, mucocutânea e visceral. No Brasil, a leishmaniose é um importante problema de saúde pública pela alta incidência. O ciclo de vida da Leishmania envolve dois estágios principais de desenvolvimento, o promastigota que está presente no vetor, e o amastigota que é intracelular obrigatório do hospedeiro vertebrado. Este protozoário apresenta um alto grau de promiscuidade em quanto ao tipo de célula hospedeira, já que consegue infectar várias células do sistema imune como neutrófilos, macrófagos e células dendríticas, e também células não fagocíticas profissionais. Além disso, Leishmania pode infectar fibras musculares, como tem sido reportado em trabalhos prévios por meio de analises histológicas. Porém, as características da infecção por Leishmania no músculo têm sido pouco estudadas, o que permitiria estabelecer a importância destas células durante a infecção. O objetivo deste projeto foi avaliar as características biológicas da infecção por promastigotas de L. (L.) amazonensis em células musculares esqueléticas (SkMCs). Para atingir isso, camundongos C57BL/6 e BALB/c foram infectados nas patas traseiras, o musculo Flexor Digitorum Brevis (FDB) foi extraído e processado para coloração com hematoxilina/eosina ou imunohistoquímica. Culturas de SkMCs como mioblastos e miotubos foram infectadas com promastigotas metacíclicos de L. (L.) amazonensis por 72h. As infecções foram caracterizadas por meio de imunofluorescência indireta e microscopia confocal. As culturas de SkMCs foram caracterizadas e padronizadas por médio das proteínas Caveolina-1 e Caveolina-3, também foi medido o Ph dos vacúolos parasitóforos de mioblastos e miotubos com laranja de acridina (AO). Adicionalmente, culturas de SkMCs como miotubos foram pré-tratadas com Streptolisina O (SLO) e/ou infectadas com promastigotas metacíclicos de L. (L.) amazonensis por 72h, com o intuito de esclarecer como ocorre a entrada do parasito nas células musculares. Neste caso foi avaliada a produção de IL-1&#946;, IL-6, IL-10 e NO. Além disso, foi quantificado o mRNA de IL1&#946;, IL-6, iNOS, Ama2, UbH e Lyst. A infecção de células mostrou que L. (L.) amazonensis consegue infectar as fibras musculares in vivo, e também as células musculares esqueléticas (mioblastos e miotubos) in vitro. Além disso, o teste de viabilidade mostrou que L. (L.) amazonensis permanece viável dentro do vacúolo parasitóforo após 72h de infecção. Finalmente, foi observado que o tratamento com SLO pode favorecer a entrada do parasito nas SkMCs, como foi evidenciado pelas diferencias no nível de mRNA entre as células infectadas ou infectadas e tratadas com SLO. Os dados em conjunto sugerem que L. (L.) amazonensis tem a capacidade de infectar as células musculares esqueléticas, dado que consegue entrar nestas células, e permanecer viável dentro do vacúolo parasitóforo. A presença do parasito dentro das células induz uma resposta imune no músculo que pode estar relacionada com os processos de reparo do tecido. A entrada de L. (L.) amazonensis nas células musculares esqueléticas durante a infecção no hospedeiro mamífero é importante devido a sua capacidade de manter o parasito viável. / Leishmaniasis is a group of diseases caused by parasites from genus Leishmania. The main clinical manifestations are cutaneous, mucocutaneus and visceral leishmaniasis. In Brazil, leishmaniasis is an important public health problem because of the high incidence. The Leishmania life cycle has two principal developing stages: promastigote inside the insect vector, and amastigote, an obligate intracellular parasite of vertebrate-host cells. This protozoan is highly promiscuous in host cell type, because it infects different immune cells like neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells, and also non-professional phagocytes. Besides, Leishmania might infect muscle fibers, as previous studies suggested from histological analysis. However, the characteristics of Leishmania infection in muscle cells is poorly understood, which is important to understand the role of these cells during the infection. The aim of this study was to characterize the infection process by promastigotes of <i.>L. (L.) amazonensis in skeletal muscle cells (SkMCs). C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice were infected in hind footpads, the Flexor Digitorum Brevis (FDB) muscle was extracted and process to dyed with hematoxylin/eosin or immunohistochemistry. SkMCs as myoblasts and myotubes were infected with metaciclic promastigotes of L. (L.) amazonensis during 72h. The infections were characterized using indirect immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. SkMCs culture were characterized and standardized through Caveolin-1 and Caveolin-3 proteins, and the pH of parasitophorous vacuoles both in myoblasts and myotubes was measured through acridine orange staining. In order to assess how the parasite invades the cells, myotubes were pretreated with SLO and/or infected with metaciclic promastigotes of L. (L.) amazonensis for 72h. The production of IL-1&#946;, IL-6, IL-10 and NO was quantified, and the mRNA levels of IL-1&#946;, IL-6, iNOS, Ama2, UbH and Lyst. The cell infection showed that L. (L.) amazonensis can infect muscle fibers in vivo, and skeletal muscle cells in vitro. Moreover, viability test showed the parasite remains viable inside the parasitophorous vacuole until 72h of infection. Finally, the SLO treatment can favor parasite entrance in SkMCs, as evidenced by differences in mRNA levels between infected cells or infected and treated with SLO. All data suggest that L. (L.) amazonensis can infect skeletal muscle cells, by entering into the cells, and remaining viable inside the parasitophorous vacuole. The parasite presence inside the muscle cells triggers an immune response that may be related with muscle repair processes. The entrance of L. (L.) amazonensis into SkMCs during infection in a mammal host is important because it contribute with parasite proliferation.

Oxidative damage has been suggested to play a key role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular disease. Increased free radical production induced by oxidative stress can oxidise low density lipoproteins, activates platelets, induces endothelial dysfunction and disturbs glucose transport by consuming endogenous antioxidants. Using a combination, of in vitro and in vivo experimental models, the primary aims of the studies undertaken for this thesis were to examine whether different antioxidants could negate risk factors leading to thrombosis, atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases. The studies utilised the mechanisms involved in platelet activity and glucose uptake by skeletal muscle myotubes. The first study determined if olive leaf extract would attenuate platelet activity in healthy human subjects. Blood samples (n=11) were treated with five different concentrations of extract of Olea europaea L. leaves ranging from 5.4£gg/mL to 54£gg/mL. A significant reduction in platelet activity (pless than0.001) and ATP release from platelets (p=0.02) was observed with 54£gg/mL olive leaf extract. The next crossover study compared the effect of exercise and antioxidant supplementation on platelet function between trained and sedentary individuals. An acute bout of 1 hour exercise (sub maximal cycling at 70% of VO2max) was used to induce oxidative stress in 8 trained and 8 sedentary male subjects, before and after one week supplementation with 236 mg/day of cocoa polyphenols. Baseline platelet count and ATP release increased significantly (pless than0.05) after exercise in all subjects. Baseline platelet numbers in the trained were higher than in the sedentary (235¡Ó37 vs. 208¡Ó34 x109/L, p less than 0.05), whereas platelet activation in trained subjects was lower than sedentary individuals (51¡Ó6 vs. 59¡Ó5%, p less than0.05). Seven days of cocoa polyphenol supplementation did not change platelet activity compared to the placebo group. The third study determined the effect of 5 weeks of either 100mg/day £^-Tocopherol (n=14), 200mg/d £^-Tocopherol (n=13) or placebo (n=12) on platelet function, lipid profile and the inflammatory marker C-reactive protein. Blood £^-tocopherol concentrations increased significantly (pless than0.05) relative to dose. Both doses attenuated platelet activation (pless than0.05). LDL cholesterol, platelet aggregation and mean platelet volume were decreased by 100mg/d £^-tocopherol (all pless than0.05). The final study determined the effect of glucose oxidase induced oxidative stress and £^-tocopherol treatment on glucose transport and insulin signalling in cultured rat L6 muscle cells. One hour treatment with 100mU/mL glucose oxidase significantly decreased glucose uptake both with and without 100nM insulin stimulation (pless than0.05). Pre-treatment with 100ƒÝM and 200ƒÝM £^-tocopherol partially protected cells from the effect of glucose oxidase, whereas 200ƒÝM £^-tocopherol restored both basal and insulin stimulated glucose transport to control levels. Glucose oxidase-induced oxidative stress did not impair basal or insulin stimulated phosphorylation of Akt or AS160, but 200ƒÝM £^-tocopherol improved insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of these proteins. In summary, the results from the studies undertaken for this thesis provide evidence that antioxidant supplementation maintains normal platelet function, exerts a positive effect on blood lipid profile and improves glucose uptake in normal healthy asymptomatic population as well as under conditions of induced oxidative stress. Antioxidants including foods rich in cocoa, olive and gamma tocopherol have the potential to combat oxidative stress induced risk factors leading to cardiovascular diseases.

myotubesProper muscle function depends upon the fine tuning of the different molecular components of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). Synaptic acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is responsible for rapidly terminating neurotransmission. Neuroscientists in the field have elucidated many aspects of synaptic AChE structure, function, and localization during the last 75 years. Nevertheless, how the enzyme is regulated and targeted to the NMJ is not completely understood. In skeletal muscle the synaptic AChE form derives from two separate genes encoding the catalytic and the collagenic tail (ColQ) subunits respectively. ColQ-AChE expression is regulated by muscle activity; however, how this regulation takes place remains poorly understood. We found that over or down-regulation of ColQ is sufficient to change the levels of AChE activity by promoting assembly of higher order oligomeric forms including the collagen-tailed forms. Furthermore, when peptides containing the Proline Rich Attachment Domain (PRAD), the region of ColQ that interacts with the AChE, are fed to muscle cells or cell lines expressing AChE, they are taken up by the cells and retrogradely transported to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)/Golgi network where they induce assembly of newly synthesize AChE into tetramers. This results in an increase, as a consequence, in total cell associated AChE activity and active tetramer secretion, making synthetic PRAD peptides potential candidates for the treatment of organophosphate pesticides and nerve gas poisoning. To study the developmental regulation of ColQ-AChE we determined the levels of ColQ and ColQ mRNA in primary quail muscle cells in culture and as a function of muscle activity. Surprisingly, we found dissociation between transcription and translation of ColQ from its assembly into ColQ-AChE indicating the importance of posttranslational controls in the regulation of AChE folding and assembly. Furthermore, we found that the vast majority of the ColQ molecules in QMCs are not assembled into ColQ-AChE, suggesting that they can have alternative function(s). Finally, we found that the levels of ER molecular chaperones calnexin, calreticulin, and particularly protein disulfide isomerase are regulated by muscle activity and they correlate with the levels of ColQ-AChE. More importantly, our results suggest that newly synthesized proteins compete for chaperone assistance during the folding process.

Cellulose nanowhiskers (CNWs) are high aspect ratio rod-like nanoparticles with diameters on the order of a few nanometers. For the very first time CNWs are demonstrated as a useful material for guided tissue engineering. Due to their nanoscale dimensions and high aspect ratio, highly oriented spin coated surfaces of CNWs are shown to direct the morphology and terminal differentiation of myoblasts, allowing the culture of skeletal muscle-like tissue with a more physiologically relevant structure.CNWs are prepared from cellulose extracted from the tunicate Ascidiella sp. using acid hydrolysis to prepare high aspect ratio particles with diameters of approximately 5 to 6 nm. A spin coating method is used to prepare sparsely adsorbed sub-monolayers of CNWs with a high degree of relative orientation. The surfaces have a mean feature height of only 5.5 nm and the degree of CNW adsorption and orientation is modulated by altering the preparation procedure. When C2C12 myoblasts are seeded to the surfaces, the cells adopt highly oriented morphologies induced by the CNWs via contact guidance. This is a demonstration of contact guidance on some of the smallest topographical features ever reported. Furthermore, the highly oriented CNWs promote fusion and terminal differentiation of the myoblasts to form multinucleated myotubes with a striking degree of parallel orientation.CNW surfaces are also shown to support the adhesion and spreading of human mesenchymal stem cells, inducing the adoption of highly oriented cell morphologies. The ability of hMSCs to undergo cell fusion with C2C12 myotubes highlights the great potential for tissue engineering human skeletal muscle, using CNWs to direct the structure of the tissue. The bioactivity and low cytotoxicity of CNWs, coupled with their low cost and simple production procedure, indicates that CNWs will be a useful material for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

La caractérisation des mécanismes moléculaires exacts de la signalisation de l'insuline est très importante pour comprendre, traiter et prévenir le diabète de type 2. Le deacetylase SIRT1 est une protéine récemment découverte qui est impliquée dans la régulation métabolique, comme dans la sécrétion de l'insuline et l'homéostasie glucidique. Un des activateurs de SIRT1, le resvératrol, a des effets bénéfiques sur la santé, dont une amélioration de la sensibilité à l'insuline et une durée de vie prolongée. Cependant, l'interaction exacte entre la signalisation de l'insuline, SIRT1 et le resvératrol n'est pas connue. Par conséquent j'ai étudié au cours de ma thèse l'impact du resvératrol et de SIRT1 sur la voie de signalisation de l'insuline, principalement dans des cellules musculaires mais aussi in vivo dans le modèle expérimentale du nématode C.elegans. J'ai pu montrer que le resvératrol est un inhibiteur class IA-spécifique de la PI3K. Le resveratrol inhibe aussi l'installation d'une insulino-résistance, peut-être par l'inhibition des protéines kinases comme JNK, diminuant ainsi la phosphorylation en sérine des IRS. Nous montrons aussi que SIRT1 intensifie la signalisation de l'insuline, probablement par l'interaction avec le complexe IRS-PI3K. L'interaction de SIR-2.1, l'homologue de SIRT1, avec la PI3K joue aussi un rôle important dans la régulation de la durée de vie de C.elegans / Characterisation of the exact molecular mechanisms of insulin signalling is of great importance in understanding, treating and preventing type 2 diabetes. The recently discovered deacetylase SIRT1 is implicated in several metabolic regulation mechanisms, including insulin secretion and glucose homeostasis. The SIRT1 activator resveratrol also has beneficial metabolic effects, including improved insulin sensitivity and prolonged lifespan. However, the exact interplay of insulin signalling, SIRT1 and resveratrol is not known. I have therefore studied the impact of resveratrol and SIRT1 on the insulin signalling pathway, mainly in muscle cells, but also in the living model C.elegans. This work has allowed me to show that resveratrol is an isoform-specific PI3K inhibitor. Resveratrol also inhibited instalment of insulin resistance, possible through inhibition of kinases like JNK thereby reducing the IRS serine phosphorylation. We also showed that SIRT1 potentiates insulin signalling, probably through interaction with IRS-PI3K. The interaction with SIR-2.1, the SIRT1 homolog, is important also in PI3K-mediated lifespan regulation in C.elegans

La dystrophie musculaire de Duchenne est une maladie neuromusculaire qui touche 1 enfant sur 3500, liée au chromosome X, caractérisée par l’absence de dystrophine, protéine située sous le sarcolemme qui confère stabilité à la membrane cellulaire en connectant l’actine du cytosquelette avec la matrice extracellulaire. Elle fait partie d’un complexe multi protéique, nommé « dystrophin associated protein complex (DAPC)», qui contient, entre autre, le -dystroglycane et l’oxyde nitrique synthase (NOS). Son absence cause la dérégulation de l’homéostasie calcique, la nécrose tissulaire, l’accumulation de tissu graisseux et fibreux, l’incapacité de mouvement et des déficits cardiaques et respiratoires qui aboutissent au décès des patients. Mon travail avait comme objectif l’amélioration de différents aspects du phénotype dystrophique. J’ai utilisé des molécules capables d’activer deux voies de signalisations (la voie du NO et l’inhibition des histones deacetylase (HDAC)), connues pour induire l’amélioration du phénotype dystrophique chez la souris mdx, modèle de la maladie. Plus particulièrement, j’ai testé chez la souris, deux mode d’administration du butyrate d’arginine (AB), la drogue de référence car déjà utilisée en clinique sur des jeunes patients pour une autre indication, par gavage et par injection intrapéritonéale. J’ai étudié aussi deux nouvelles molécules dérivées du AB, qui pourraient être administrées par voie orale et être efficace à faible dose : le 3-Hydroxybutyrate arginate (ABE) et le N-butyril arginine (ABA). AB, ABE et ABA ont été testés in vitro sur les myotubes de patients dystrophiques et in vivo sur des souris mdx. L’administration orale du AB a les mêmes effets positifs que l’injection intrapéritonéale chez les souris mdx. Ces résultats démontrent que l’administration par voie orale doit être prise en considération lors des futurs essais cliniques. Dans un deuxième temps, je me suis focalisée sur les défauts cardiaques. Un suivi par échocardiographie mensuelle a été réalisé sur des souris de 8 mois traitées avec du AB. En parallèle nous avons analysé les effets de l’administration par voie orale du AB sur les déformations de la colonne vertébrale. Enfin, les altérations des signaux de l’électromyogramme (réalisé avec une méthode non invasive développée en clinique et appliquée pour les animaux) ont été également analysées. L’ensemble des résultats obtenus montre que le AB est capable de préserver l’activité cardiaque, d’empêcher la déformation de la colonne vertébrale et de rétablir les paramètres d’excitabilité axonale mesurés chez les souris traitées.Différentes concentrations des ABE et ABA ont été testé in vivo et observé à des faibles doses les mêmes résultats bénéfiques sur de nombreux paramètres structuraux et fonctionnels, que ceux obtenu avec une dose importante de AB (800mg/kg/j). Les deux nouvelles drogues peuvent être administrées à une dose 10 fois inferieur que la dose de AB pour obtenir les mêmes effets. J’ai testé aussi in vitro, sur des cellules musculaires humaines, la capacité des deux produits à induire une augmentation des niveaux intracellulaires d’utrophine et des protéines associées (β-dystroglycan et la myosine embryonnaire). J’ai aussi démontré qu’une augmentation de l’expression de l’utrophine et des protéines associées pouvait être induite par les inhibiteurs d’HDAC (le butyrate, la trichostatine A, l’acide valproique et l’isobutyramide). Enfin, une étude portant sur l’homéostasie calcique a été réalisé car des altérations de cet équilibre sont en partie responsables de la nécrose/dégénérescence du tissue musculaire. En particulier, l’activité spontanée du Ca2+, enregistrée sur le myotubes humaine, été fortement réduite après un traitement agissant sur la voie d’activation du NO et/ou par des inhibiteurs des HDAC. L’ensemble des résultats obtenus apportent la preuve des effets bénéfiques du AB et de ses dérivés sur la DMD, a travers la voie du NO et en inhibant les HDAC. / Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a X-linked progressive neuromuscular disease affecting 1:3500 boys at birth. It is caused by the absence of dystrophin, a subsarcolemmal protein that confers membrane stability linking cytoskeletal actin to the extracellular matrix. It is part of a multi-protein complex called dystrophin associated protein complex (DAPC), which contains, among the other components, -dystroglycan and nitric oxide synthase (NOS).The consequences of the absence of dystrophin are: deregulation of calcium homeostasis, tissues necrosis, progressive accumulation of fat and fibrosis, inability of the movements and cardiac and respiratory failures that lead to patient’s death, around the age of 20-30 years.The objective of my PhD work is to ameliorate different aspects of dystrophic phenotype. In particular I have tested two different ways of administration of arginine butyrate (AB), the reference drug, through feeding-force and intraperitoneal injection. Meanwhile I have studied two new pharmacological molecules, AB derived, which could be administered orally to DMD patients. These compounds are: 3-Hydroxybutyrate arginate (refer as ABE) and N-butyryl arginine (refer as ABA). All of these molecules partially restore dystrophic phenotype activating two independent pathways (both the nitric oxide pathway and the inhibition of the histone deacetilase), which are known to be beneficent for mdx mice.AB, ABE and ABA have been tested in vitro on human DMD myotubes and in vivo on the mdx mice. The first goal of my project is the observation that the positive effects obtained after intraperitoneal injections of AB can be detected also after oral protocol, promoting the idea that the oral way has to be developed for future clinical trials. I have focused my attention on heart defaults; in particular, starting from the 8th month, a monthly study on heart activity based on echocardiography has been performed on mdx mice treated with AB. We addressed the potential profits of the oral administration of arginine butyrate on vertebral column deformation and electromyogram defaults, with a non-invasive automatized method developed in clinic and then applied to animals. The results collected from these experiments show that AB preserve heart activity, reverse vertebral column deformity and all the axonal excitability parameters that were modified in saline-treated mdx mice.In complement, I have tested different concentrations of ABE and ABA in vivo. The positive effects on many structural and functional dystrophic parameters, previously obtained with high dose of AB administered per os (800 mg/kg/d), has been observed with doses 10 times lower with both new compounds.In parallel, both products were tested in vitro on human muscular cells cultures to investigate their capacity to increase utrophin level. Moreover, the potential ability of histone deacetylase inhibitors (byturate, valproic acid, trichostatin A and isobutyramide) to increase the expression of utrophin and related proteins (-dystroglycan and embryonic myosin) has been studied. Finally, the alteration of calcium homeostasis, largely implicated in the cascades resulting in muscle necrosis/degeneration, was investigated. The spontaneous Ca2+ activity recorded in patient myotubes, i.e. without sarcolemmal integrity was strongly reduced after treatment acting on the NO-pathway activation and/or with HDAC inhibitors. All together, these data constitute a proof of principle of the beneficial effects of arginine butyrate and its derivates on muscular dystrophy, by enhancing NO pathway and inhibiting HDAC.

La dystrophie musculaire de Duchenne (DMD) est la conséquence de la perte de la dystrophine, une protéine cytosquelettique indispensable au maintien mécanique et fonctionnel du sarcolemme. Notre équipe a largement étudié les entrées cationiques dans les lignées murines et a montré : 1- une augmentation anormale des influx dépendant des stocks calciques (SOCE) dans les myotubes (MT) déficients en dystrophine (dys-), 2- que les influx SOCE sont médiés par les canaux TRPC1 et TRPC4, 3- que la dérégulation des SOCE dans les MT dys- est corrigée grâce à la surexpression de l'α1-syntrophine. Au jour d'aujourd’hui, il existe peu d'éléments dans la littérature quant à la caractérisation des entrées SOCEs dans les cellules musculaires humaines et dans la DMD. Ce travail de thèse s'articule autour de deux parties : Le modèle murin, dans lequel nous avons montré un rôle indispensable de STIM1 et Orai1 dans la mise en place des entrées SOCEs et l'implication de la voie Ca2+/PLC/PKC dans l'augmentation anormale de ces entrées dans les MT murins dys-. Le modèle humain primaire, dans lequel nous avons mis en évidence : 1- une augmentation anormale des influx SOCEs dans les MT DMD et établit le profil d'expression des différentes protéines nécessaires à la mise en place de ces entrées ; 2- l'implication de la voie Ca2+/PLC/PKC dans la dérégulation des SOCEs dans les MT humains DMD et le rôle de l'α1-syntrophine dans la régulation de ces entrées dans les MT humains ; 3- la dérégulation de l'homéostasie calcique dans la DMD qui se produit par l'intermédiaire des entrées cationiques dépendantes de TRPV2 dans les cellules musculaires dystrophiques. / Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is the consequence of the loss of dystrophin, a cytoskeletal protein essential for the mechanical and functional maintenance of the sarcolemma. Our group has extensively studied store-operated cation influx (SOCE) in mouse cell lines and highlighted: 1- an abnormal increase in SOCE in dystrophin-deficient (dys-) mouse myotubes (MT), 2- That SOCE are mediated by TRPC1 and TRPC4, 3- that SOCE deregulation in dys- MT is corrected by overexpression of α1-syntrophin. As of today, there is little evidence in the literature regarding the characterization of SOCE in human muscle cells and in human DMD. This thesis work is divided in two parts : In the murine model, we demonstrated an essential role of STIM1 and Orai1 in the establishment of SOCE and highlighted the involvement of Ca2+/PLC/PKC pathway in the abnormal increase of cation entry in dystrophin-deficient mouse myotubes.In primary human model, we showed: 1- an abnormal increase of SOCE in DMD MT and established the expression profile of various proteins necessary for the implementation of this influx; 2- the involvement of Ca2+/PLC/PKC in SOCE deregulation in human DMD MT and the role of α1-syntrophin in the regulation of cation entry in human MT; 3- the deregulation of calcium homeostasis in DMD that occurs through TRPV2. This work proposes a new regulatory pathway, Ca2+/PLC/PKC, for SOCE in skeletal muscle cells and provides the first elements of the disruption of calcium homeostasis in DMD human myotubes due to the absence of SOCE's regulation by the α1-syntrophin and to the overactivation of TRPV2 channels.