Physical Education (PE) is one of the most important contexts in which to investigate motivational processes due to its exclusivity in including young people of a range of ages and abilities and due to PE being a compulsory activity. PE is not only a platform for students to increase their daily physical activity, but can also provide students with the skills and confidence to pursue physical activity into adulthood. However, there is an increasing amount of concern over the levels of physical activity of young people today, with statistics showing a decline in physical activity among adolescence. Understanding student s motivational processes during PE may help researchers and physical educators intervene to provide support to those students who are not motivated to participate in PE lessons. Grounded in self-determination theory, this thesis aims to examine student s amotivation in PE. Although there is growing evidence investigating amotivation, there is a dearth of knowledge concerning amotivation in the PE context and as a multidimensional construct. This thesis therefore aims to address this lack of knowledge by exploring a measure of amotivation that can be used in PE and relationships between the four amotivation dimensions (deficient ability beliefs, deficient effort beliefs, insufficient task values and unappealing task characteristics), physical self-concept and attainment (Study 1). Following Study 1, an examination of student s perceptions of teacher s need support as a predictor of change in the amotivation dimensions over time is carried out in Study 2, followed by further investigations to determine additional socio-contextual variables that may be potential predictors of amotivated behaviours (Studies 3a, 3b, 4). The results of these five studies contained within the thesis provide an interesting insight into student s amotivation in PE. Evidence for perceptions of teacher s psychological need support, physical self-concept and peer motivational climate being influential in determining changes in the amotivation sub-types is presented. The findings highlight the need to investigate these relationships further so a more comprehensive understanding of amotivation is achieved. Future research should continue to employ longitudinal designs to identify additional predictors of amotivation and to ensure research into amotivation is substantial in order to design effective interventions to support physical educators in reducing amotivated behaviours.

Along many dimensions, homeschooling is increasing, diversifying, and spreading globally. Yet little is known about the motivational climates and teaching strategies parents have adopted to promote academic achievement and motivation within their homes. Working within a self-determination theory (SDT) framework, this study used cluster analysis to examine the naturally-occurring types of learning environments created by 457 homeschool parents. Measures of support for autonomy, mastery goal orientation, and conditional regard were adapted for a homeschool context and used as constituting variables. Follow-up measures of need satisfaction, efficacy, student academic engagement, teaching practices and demographics were used to identify significant differences among groups. A five cluster solution best fit the data: a high need support group, low need support group and three groups of mixed need support. In general, the high need and mixed need support groups were associated with higher student engagement, need satisfaction, efficacy for homeschooling and frequent use of teaching strategies that promote autonomous motivation and support for student competence. The low need support group was significantly associated with lower need satisfaction and teaching strategies associated with control. Higher levels of academic engagement were reported for those students homeschooled longer and at higher grade levels. Male teaching parents (n = 29) reported significantly less need satisfaction and were significantly associated with the low need support group. Taken together, the findings extend self-determination theory to an important, emerging learning context. Results were consistent with findings in SDT research across other domains; thus, lending support to the universality of SDT's main tenets. / Educational Psychology

De nombreuses études ont montré la pertinence de soutenir les besoins psychologiques d’autonomie, de compétence et d’affiliation des employés au travail, tel que postulé par la théorie de l’autodétermination. Or, une incertitude subsiste quant aux comportements qu’un gestionnaire devrait adopter pour offrir l’opportunité à ses employés de satisfaire leurs besoins psychologiques au travail. D’ailleurs, les recherches s’en tiennent aux connaissances issues de milieux autres que celui du travail. En conséquence, l’opérationnalisation et l’instrumentation du soutien aux besoins psychologiques des employés s’appuient principalement sur des modèles validés auprès d’autres populations, notamment les athlètes et entraîneurs, les élèves et enseignants ainsi que les enfants et parents. Cette thèse vise à mieux comprendre comment un gestionnaire peut concrètement, de par ses comportements, favoriser la satisfaction des besoins psychologiques fondamentaux d’autonomie, de compétence et d’affiliation de ses employés au travail. De plus, elle a pour objectif de développer un instrument psychométrique du soutien aux besoins psychologiques des employés, qui est valide pour le contexte organisationnel. Le premier article de la thèse décrit une étude à devis qualitatif. Celle-ci vise à identifier des comportements réellement émis par des gestionnaires en milieu de travail qui favorisent la satisfaction des trois besoins psychologiques des employés. Afin de répondre à cet objectif, trois groupes focus ont été conduits auprès d’employés et de gestionnaires. Une analyse de contenu qualitative a permis d’identifier 141 comportements regroupés en 12 pratiques de gestion. En plus d’apporter une compréhension plus approfondie de la façon dont s’expriment les pratiques de gestion préalablement proposées par la théorie de l’autodétermination, cette étude met en lumière de nouveaux comportements que peuvent adopter des gestionnaires pour favoriser la satisfaction des besoins d’autonomie, de compétence et d’affiliation des employés. Le deuxième article de la thèse décrit le développement et la validation d’un outil de mesure du soutien aux besoins psychologiques des employés, qui fut réalisé par l’entremise de deux études quantitatives. L’étude 1 (N = 312 travailleurs francophones canadiens) a permis d’établir, en adoptant une approche exploratoire, la structure factorielle de l’instrument. Elle a également permis d’étayer la validité critériée et la validité divergente de l’instrument, en investiguant ses relations avec trois concepts issus de la théorie de l’autodétermination, soit la satisfaction des besoins psychologiques, la motivation au travail ainsi que la perception de contrôle psychologique de la part du gestionnaire. L’étude 2, conduite auprès d’un second échantillon (N = 334 travailleurs francophones canadiens), a permis de vérifier la structure de l’instrument à l’aide d’une approche confirmatoire. De plus, elle a permis de soutenir la validité convergente de l’outil de mesure en vérifiant ses liens avec le leadership transformationnel et le leadership habilitant. Elle a également vérifié la validité critériée de l’instrument en investiguant ses liens avec trois indicateurs du fonctionnement de l’employé, soit l’engagement, la santé psychologique et la performance au travail. Les résultats suggèrent que le soutien aux besoins psychologiques des employés s’opérationnalise par cinq pratiques de gestion, soit de 1) reconnaître les forces et la contribution des employés, 2) laisser de la latitude aux employés quant à la façon et le moment de compléter son travail, 3) démontrer un souci envers les intérêts et le bien-être des employés, 4) guider les employés afin qu’ils réalisent efficacement leur travail, et 5) développer les compétences des employés par le biais de discussions et d’opportunités d’apprentissage. Cette thèse contribue à l’avancement des connaissances en fournissant des bases qui permettront d’unifier la recherche sur le soutien aux besoins psychologiques des employés. / Many studies conducted within the framework of self-determination theory have shown the relevance of supporting the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and affiliation of employees at work. Because research is limited to knowledge from non-work environments, there remains uncertainty regarding the behaviours a manager should adopt to provide employees with the opportunity to meet their psychological needs at work. As a result, the operationalization and instrumentation of managerial need support rely primarily on those of need support validated with populations other than employees and managers, such as athletes and coaches, students and teachers, as well as children and parents. This dissertation aims to better understand how managers can concretely, through their behaviours, promote the satisfaction of employees’ psychological needs of autonomy, competence and affiliation at work. In addition, it aims to develop a psychometric instrument aligned with this operationalization of managerial need support that is ecologically valid for the organizational context. The first article of the thesis describes a qualitative study. This study aims to identify behaviours actually emitted by managers in the workplace that promote the satisfaction of the three psychological needs of employees. To meet this objective, three focus groups were conducted with employees and managers. A qualitative content analysis identified 141 management behaviours grouped into 12 management practices. In addition to providing a deeper understanding of management practices previously articulated by self-determination theory expressed in the workplace, this study highlights previously ignored practices and behaviours that can be adopted by managers to foster employees’ needs of autonomy, competence and affiliation at work. The second article of the thesis describes the development and validation of a measure of managerial need support through a series of two quantitative studies. Study 1 (N = 312 French-Canadian workers) establishes, by taking an exploratory approach, the structure of the instrument. Then, it verifies the criterion validity and the divergent validity of the instrument by investigating its relationship with three concepts rooted in self-determination theory: the satisfaction of employees’ psychological needs, employees’ work motivation as well as their perception of psychological control from their manager. Study 2, conducted with a second sample (N = 334 French-Canadian workers), takes a confirmatory approach in validating the structure of the instrument. In addition, it establishes the convergent validity of the measurement tool by verifying its links with transformational leadership and empowering leadership. It also verifies the criterion validity of the instrument by investigating its links with three indicators of employees’ functioning at work: engagement, psychological health and work performance. The results suggest that managerial need support is operationalized through five management practices, that is, 1) recognizing the strengths and contributions of employees, 2) offering flexibility to employees about how and when to complete one’s work, 3) demonstrating a concern for the interests and well-being of employees, 4) guiding employees to effectively perform their work, and 5) developing employees’ skills through discussions and concrete learning opportunities. This thesis contributes to the advancement of knowledge by providing a common base that will unify research conducted on managerial need support.

Baserat på Self-Determination Theory (SDT) och en randomiserad kontrollstudiedesign undersöktes effekten av autonomistödjande textmeddelanden i jämförelse med neutrala meddelanden eller inga meddelanden på deltagarnas behovstillfredsställelse, motivation, och aktivitetsnivå. Digital kvantitativ datainsamling användes där webbenkäterna skickades ut tre gånger till deltagarna, innan, under samt efter intervention. Totalt 107 frivilliga män och kvinnor svarade vid baslinjemätningen och delades sedan in i tre olika grupper, inaktiv kontrollgrupp (n = 45), aktiv kontrollgrupp (n = 29) samt interventionsgrupp (n = 33). Interventionen ägde rum i samband med en stegtävling. Textmeddelandena skickades ut till deltagarna i aktiva kontrollgruppen och interventionsgruppen två gånger varje vecka under åtta veckor, via en digital plattform. Det förelåg inga signifikanta skillnader mellan grupperna vid baslinjemätningen. En tvåvägs-ANOVA (repeated measure) visade att interventionen hade en signifikant effekt på upplevelsen av tillhörighet under interventionen. Dock förelåg inga andra signifikanta interventionseffekter. Det sammanlagda resultatet antyder således att den digitala interventionen, det vill säga att tillhandahålla deltagarna med autonomistödjande textmeddelanden, inte har någon bestående effekt på deltagarnas behovstillfredsställelse, motivation eller aktivitetsnivå. / Based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and a randomized controlled trial design, the effect of autonomy-supportive text messages was examined in comparison with neutral messages or no messages regarding the participants basic psychological needs, motivation and activity level. Digital quantitative data collection was used, and the web surveys were sent out three times to participants, pre, during and post intervention. A total of 107 male and female volunteers responded to the baseline measurement and were then divided into three different groups, inactive control group (n = 45), active control group (n = 29) and intervention group (n = 33). The intervention took place in relation to a step contest. Text messages were sent to the participant’s in the active control group and intervention group twice a week for a total of eight weeks, via a digital platform. There were no significant differences between the groups in the baseline measurement. A two-way ANOVA (repeated measure) showed that the intervention had a significant effect on the experience of relatedness during the intervention. However, there were no other significant intervention effects. The results suggest that the digital intervention, to provide participants with autonomy supportive text messages, does not have a lasting effect on need satisfaction, motivation or activity level.

Inre motivation som konceptualiseras inom Self Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 2000) har en viktig roll i att främja fortsatt idrottande och välmående. Till vilken grad en individ upplever inre motivation kan ses utifrån faktorerna behovstillfredsställelse och behovsfrustration. Motivationen påverkas även av omgivningen genom så kallat behovsstöd och behovshindrande. Denna studie syftade till att undersöka om det fanns något samband mellan svenska badmintonspelares upplevelse av behovstillfredsställelse/-frustration och behovsstöd/-hindrande och deras intention att fortsätta med badminton i framtiden. 133 aktiva svenska badmintonspelare, i åldern 15-66 år och äldre deltog i studien. Intentionen att fortsätta spela badminton uppvisade ett statistiskt signifikant positivt samband med variablerna behovsstöd och behovstillfredsställelse. Inget samband hittades mellan Intentionen att fortsätta spela badminton och variablerna behovshindrande och behovsfrustration. Intentionen att fortsätta spela badminton var även högre ju äldre spelaren var, ju fler år spelaren spelat badminton och ju fler år med nuvarande huvudtränare de haft.  Behovsstöd och behovstillfredsställelse förefaller således vara områden att fokusera på inom idrottsföreningar med syfte att bidra till ett långsiktigt idrottande, även inom andra idrotter än badminton. / Studies have shown the importance of intrinsic motivation and Self Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 2000) when it comes to promoting sport participation and well-being. The amount of intrinsic motivation experienced by an individual can be estimated using the factors Need Satisfaction and Need Frustration and also be influenced by the surrounding people through Need Support and Need Thwarting. This study aimed to investigate whether a correlation between the experience of Need Satisfaction/-Frustration and Need Support/-Thwarting in Swedish badminton players and their intention to continue with badminton in the future existed. 133 active Swedish badminton players participated in the study, age 15 to 66 and older. The intention to continue playing badminton indicated a statistically significant positive correlation with the variables Need Support and Need Satisfaction. No correlation was found between the intention to continue playing badminton and the variables Need Thwarting and Need Frustration. The higher the age, more years as an active badminton player and more years with their current coach, the higher was also the intention to continue with badminton in the future. Need Support and Need Satisfaction can therefore be important areas of interest within sport clubs to promote long-term sport participation, in badminton as well as other sports.