Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Multiple lines of High Alcohol Preferring (HAP) mice were selectively bred for their intake of 10% ethanol (v/v) during 24-h daily access over a four-week period, with the highest drinking lines exhibiting intakes in excess of 20 g/kg/day. Drinking rhythms and corresponding blood ethanol concentrations (BEC) of the highest drinking HAP lines to those of the C57BL/6J (B6) inbred strain. Adult male and female crossed HAP (cHAP), HAP1 and B6 mice had free-choice access to 10% ethanol and water for 3 weeks prior to bi-hourly assessments of intake throughout the dark portion of a reverse 12:12 light dark cycle. In another cohort of cHAP mice, the same procedure was used to assess bi-hourly ethanol intake, and blood samples were taken across the day to look at the pattern of accumulation in these mice. Finally, considering the high level of intake by cHAP mice, we were interested in assessing whether metabolic and functional tolerance develop following chronic free-choice access, which were assessed using 2.0 and 1.75 g/kg challenge doses of 20% ethanol, respectively. cHAP and HAP1 mice maintained an excessive level of intake throughout the dark portion of the cycle, accumulating mean BEC levels of 261.5 + 18.09 and 217.9 + 25.02 mg/dl at 7-8 hours following lights off, respectively. B6 mice drank comparatively modestly, and did not accumulate high BEC levels (53.63 + 8.15 mg/dl). In the cHAP cohort, mean BECs were 112.47 + 19.91 at 2 hours after lights off, 189.00 + 27.40 at 6 hours after lights off, 193.80 + 29.66 at 10 hours after lights off, and 89.68 + 22.19 at 2 hours after lights on. Further, following 3 weeks of ethanol access, cHAP mice had a faster rate of ethanol metabolism and fewer hind slips than water-only exposed mice (ps < .05). In conclusion, the excessive free-choice drinking demonstrated by the HAP1 and cHAP lines, as well as the pattern of sustained high BECs in cHAP mice, challenge the notion that rodents will not reliably and voluntarily sustain ethanol intake at pharmacologically relevant levels. These results suggest that the highest drinking HAP lines may provide a unique opportunity for modeling the excessive intake that has been observed in alcohol-dependent individuals. Further, we observed that cHAP mice develop both metabolic and functional tolerance to the ataxic effects of ethanol following 3 weeks of free-choice access. Together, these findings support HAP mice as translational rodent model of alcoholism, and provide rationale for exploration of the predisposing factors for excessive consumption, as well as the development of physiological, behavioral, and toxicological outcomes following alcohol exposure.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Alcohol consumption produces a complex array of effects that can be divided into two types: the explicit pharmacological effects of ethanol (which can be quite separate temporally from time of intake) and the more temporally “relevant” effects (primarily olfactory and taste) that bridge the time from intake to the onset of the pharmacological effects. Dissociating these effects is essential to untangling the neurologic underpinnings of alcohol abuse and dependence. Intravenous self-administration of ethanol allows for controlled and precise dosing, bypasses first order absorption kinetics allowing for a faster onset of pharmacologic effects, and eliminates the confounding “non-pharmacological” effects associated with oral consumption. Intravenous self-administration of ethanol has been reliably demonstrated in both mouse and human experimental models; however, consistent intravenous self-administration of pharmacologically relevant levels of ethanol remains elusive in the rat. Previous work has demonstrated reliable elevated intravenous ethanol self administration using a compound reinforcer of oral sucrose and intravenous ethanol. The present study sought to elucidate the role of each component of this reinforcer complex using a multiple schedule study design. Male P rats had free access to both food and water during all intravenous self-administration sessions and all testing was performed in conjunction with the onset of the dark cycle. Once animals achieved stable operant responding on both levers for an orally delivered 1% sucrose solution (1S) on a FR4 schedule, surgery was conducted to implant an indwelling jugular catheter. Animals were habituated to the attachment of infusion apparatus and received twice daily sessions for four days to condition each lever to its associated schedule. Animals were then trained to respond on a multiple FR4-FR4 schedule composed of alternating 2.5 minute components. During one component only oral 1S was presented, while in the second component a compound reinforcer of oral 1S + IV 20% ethanol was presented (25 mg/kg/injection). Both levers were extended into the chamber during the session, with the active lever/schedule alternating as the session progressed across components. Average ethanol intake was 0.47 ± 0.04 g/kg. A significant increase in sucrose only reinforcers and sucrose lever error responding was found suggesting that sucrose not ethanol is responsible for driving overall responding. The current findings suggest that the existing intravenous ethanol self-administration methodology remains aversive in the rat.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The etiology of many neurodegenerative diseases is unknown, but a number of studies indicate that a combination of both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the progression of disease. Exposure to environmental metals, such as Mn2+, Fe2+, Cu2+, and Al3+, has been shown to increase cell death that is characteristic of neurodegenerative disorders such as AD, PD, Wilson’s disease and Menkes disease. These metals are important in numerous biological processes in the brain and their homeostasis is regulated through multiple mechanisms of transport, storage, and secretion. The vertebrate divalent metal transporter-1 (DMT-1) has been implicated in transport and homeostasis of these divalent cations. In these studies I utilize Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) to show that long term exposure to Mn2+ decreases animal viability in a dose-dependent manner, and I demonstrate that C. elegans homologues to DMT-1, SMF-1, SMF-2, and SMF-3, play specific roles in divalent metal ion-induced DA neurodegeneration. I show that SMF-1 contributes to Fe2+-induced DA neuron degeneration, SMF-3 contributes to Al3+-induced DA neuron degeneration, and both SMF-2 and DAT-1 contribute to Cu2+-induced DA neuron cell death. These studies utilize C. elegans as a powerful model to characterize molecules and pathways involved in metal toxicity and metal-induced DA neuron degeneration.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI). / Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) is a critical modulator of synaptic function, plasticity, and learning and memory. In neurons and astrocytes, CaMKII regulates cellular excitability, cytoskeletal structure, and cell metabolism. A rapid increase in CaMKII activity is observed within the first few minutes of ischemic stroke in vivo; this calcium-dependent process is also observed following glutamate stimulation in vitro. Activation of CaMKII during pathological conditions is immediately followed by inactivation and aggregation of the kinase. The extent of CaMKII inactivation is directly correlated with the extent of neuronal damage. The studies presented here show that these fluctuations in CaMKII activity are not correlated with neuronal death; rather, they play a causal role in neuronal death. Pharmacological inhibition of CaMKII in the time immediately surrounding glutamate insult protects cultured cortical neurons from excitotoxicity. Interestingly, pharmacological inhibition of CaMKII during excitotoxic insult also prevents the aggregation and prolonged inactivation of the kinase, suggesting that CaMKII activity during excitotoxic glutamate signaling is detrimental to neuronal viability because it leads to a prolonged loss of CaMKII activity, culminating in neuronal death. In support of this, CaMKII inhibition in the absence of excitotoxic insult induces cortical neuron apoptosis by dysregulating intracellular calcium homeostasis and increasing excitatory glutamate signaling. Blockade of the NMDA-receptors and enzymatic degradation of the extracellular glutamate signal affords neuroprotection from CaMKII inhibition-induced toxicity. Co-cultures of neurons and glutamate-buffering astrocytes also exhibit this slow-induced excitotoxicity, as CaMKII inhibitors reduce glutamate uptake within the astrocytes. CaMKII inhibition also dysregulates calcium homeostasis in astrocytes and leads to increased ATP release, which was neurotoxic when applied to naïve cortical neurons. Together, these findings indicate that during aberrant calcium signaling, the activation of CaMKII is toxic because it supports aggregation and prolonged inactivation of the kinase. Without CaMKII activity, neurons and astrocytes release stores of transmitters that further exacerbate neuronal toxicity.

Les substances perfluoroalkylées (PFAS) sont des composés synthétiques utilisés dans une multitude de domaines pour leurs propriétés hydrofuges, antiadhésives et antitaches exceptionnelles. Cependant, ces contaminants, dont la neurotoxicité a été démontrée dans les études in vitro et in vivo, sont capables de traverser la barrière placentaire et d’atteindre le fœtus en développement. Bien qu’une multitude d’études épidémiologiques aient été conduites pour examiner l’association entre l’exposition prénatale aux PFAS et le neurodéveloppement des enfants, il n’y a pas de consensus dans la littérature : certaines rapportent des associations délétères, et d’autres protectrices ou nulles. Le but de cette étude est d’évaluer l’association entre l’exposition aux PFAS chez les femmes enceintes et le développement neurocomportemental et social des enfants pendant la petite enfance. Nous avons également examiné si le lien différait entre les filles et les garçons. Les données de l’étude Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals (MIREC), une cohorte de grossesse pancanadienne, ont été utilisées. L’exposition prénatale à trois PFAS (acides perfluorooctanoïque (PFOA), perfluorooctanesulfonique (PFOS) et perfluorohexane sulfonique (PFHxS)) ainsi que leur somme (ΣPFAS) a été mesurée dans le plasma maternel prélevé durant le premier trimestre de grossesse. Lorsque les enfants étaient âgés de trois-quatre ans, les mères ont été invitées à remplir deux questionnaires sur leurs enfants : le Behaviour Assessment System for Children–2 (BASC-2), pour évaluer les difficultés émotionnelles et comportementales, et le Social Responsiveness Scale–2 (SRS-2), afin d’évaluer le développement social. À partir des données de 794 paires mère-enfant, des analyses de régressions linéaires multiples, avec ajustement pour des facteurs de confusion, ont été réalisées, et les coefficients d’association ont été calculés pour un doublement des concentrations de PFAS. La modification des associations selon le genre a été examinée au moyen de termes d'interaction et d'analyses stratifiées. Bien que la majorité des associations obtenues soient nulles, pour l’ensemble du groupe étudié, un doublement de l’exposition prénatale aux PFOS était lié à moins de déficits de motivation sociale (β = -1.03; IC : -1.88, -0.17) et le PFHxS à plus de comportements atypiques (β = 0.57; 0.04, 1.11). Cependant, les analyses selon le genre ont révélé que chez les garçons seulement, un doublement de l’exposition prénatale aux PFOA était significativement associée à des scores plus faibles pour les sous-échelles suivantes : indice des symptômes comportementaux, problèmes d'externalisation, agressivité et hyperactivité (β allant de -1.87 à -1.32). Le PFOS et la ΣPFAS étaient aussi liés à moins d’agressivité chez les garçons (β = 1.20; -2.27, -0.13 et β = -1.35; -2.55, -0.15 respectivement). À l’inverse, chez les filles, le PFOA était significativement lié à plus de symptômes d’anxiété, et le PFHxS et la ΣPFAS étaient liés à plus de problèmes de cognition sociale (β allant de 0.90 à 1.81). Dans l’ensemble, les données suggèrent que l’association entre l’exposition prénatale aux PFAS et le développement neurocomportemental et social des enfants semble différer selon le genre : un effet protecteur est observé chez les garçons, tandis qu’il ressort délétère chez les filles. Les résultats obtenus dans cette cohorte canadienne de grande taille corroborent ceux notés dans certaines études épidémiologiques rapportant un lien délétère, lequel est surtout observable chez les filles. / Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic compounds used in a wide range of fields for their exceptional water-repellent, non-stick, and stain-resistant properties. However, these contaminants, whose neurotoxicity has been demonstrated in in vitro and in vivo studies, can crossthe placental barrier, and reach the developing fetus. Although numerous epidemiological studies have been conducted to examine the association between prenatal exposure to PFAS and the neurodevelopment in children, there is no consensus in the literature: some report deleterious associations, while others report protective or null associations. The aim of this study is to investigate the association between PFAS exposure in pregnant women and the neurobehavioral and social development of children during early childhood. We also examined whether the association differed between girls and boys. We used data from the Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals (MIREC) study, a pan-Canadian pregnancy cohort. Prenatal concentrations of three PFAS (perfluorooctanoic (PFOA), perfluorooctanesulfonic (PFOS) and perfluorohexanesulfonic acids (PFHxS)), as well as their sum (åPFAS), were measured in maternal plasma collected during the first trimester of pregnancy. When the children were three to four years old, mothers were asked to complete two questionnaires about their children: the Behaviour Assessment System for Children-2 (BASC-2) to assess emotional and behavioural difficulties, and the Social Responsiveness Scale-2 (SRS-2) to assess social development. Using data from 794 mother-child dyads, multiple linear regression analyses, with adjustment for confounding factors, were performed and regression coefficients were estimated to assess whether there was an association between each doubling of PFAS concentrations and test scores. Effect modification by child gender was examined using interaction terms and stratified analyses. For the entire study group, although most of the associations found were null, a doubling of prenatal PFOS exposure was linked to fewer social motivation deficits (β = -1.03; CI: -1.88, -0.17), and increased PFHxS was linked to more atypical behaviors (β = 0.57; 0.04, 1.11). However, gender-stratified analyses revealed that in boys only, each doubling of prenatal PFOA exposure was significantly associated with lower scores on the following BASC-2 subscales: Behavioral Symptoms Index, Externalizing Problems, Aggressivity and Hyperactivity (β ranging from -1.87 to -1.32). PFOS and åPFAS were also associated with less aggression in boys (β = 1.20; -2.27, -0.13 and β = -1.35; -2.55, -0.15 respectively). Conversely, in girls only, PFOAwas significantly associated with more symptoms of anxiety, and PFHxS and ∑PFAS were associated with more social cognition problems (β ranging from 0.90 to 1.81). Overall, the data suggest that the association between prenatal PFAS exposure and the neurobehavioral and social development of children appears to differ by gender: a protective effect is observed in boys, while a detrimental effect is seen in girls. The results obtained in this large Canadian cohort are consistent with findings from some epidemiological studies reporting a harmful link predominantly in girls.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Alcoholism inheritance rates have been estimated as high as 60% in a human population. Many significant features of alcohol dependence have been replicated in rodent animal models of alcoholism, however not in totality. These animal models include inbred preferring (iP) and nonpreferring (iNP) rat types. Congenic rats have been engineered from the iP and iNP strains whereby a P congenic rat has in its genome a well-chosen chromosomal portion taken from an NP rat (P.NP) and, reciprocally, an NP congenic rat has acquired the analogous DNA from a P rat (NP.P). In this case, a quantitative trait locus (QTL) from chromosome 4 is the donor genetic material for the congenic rats. It is of great interest to further study this chromosome 4 QTL because it has been found to control a significant portion of ethanol consumption behavior in iP and iNP rats. This study aimed to behaviorally profile the iP, iNP and reciprocal congenic rats. As a result of the behavioral profiling of these genetically related groups, some conclusions could be made regarding which behaviors appear to be controlled by the chromosome 4 donor DNA.This study primarily utilized the Multivariate Concentric Square Field apparatus (MCSF) to characterize behavioral profiles for the inbred and congenic rats. The Open field (OF) and Elevated plus maze (EPM) supported this effort. The MCSF is valuable in that it allows for the animals to interact within an environment that has ethological value. The 12 different zones that make up the field are characterized by some functional quality in terms of type and duration of behavior performed, etc. The behavioral data is aggregated and finally represented in terms of five functional categories, the elements of the behavioral profile: general activity, exploratory activity, risk assessment, risk taking, and shelter seeking. The study hypotheses were shaped by prior research suggesting that iPs should display lower general activity and risk taking strategy than iNPs in the MCSF. Inbred Ps should be more active in the OF and spend more time in the center of the EPM. Generally, it is expected that the iP QTL confer behavioral phenotypes to the iNP strain that deviate toward a "P" behavioral phenotype and reciprocally, the iNP QTL confer behavioral phenotypes to the iP strain that deviate toward an "NP" behavioral phenotype. The results showed that iP rats performed more risk assessment and risk taking behavior and less shelter seeking and anxiety-like behavior than iNP rats. It followed that P.NP congenic rats significantly downgraded their risk assessment and risk taking behavior when compared to iP rats. This decrease can be attributed to the chromosome 4 QTL donated from the iNP breed. All together this study concludes that risk assessment and risk taking behavior in the iP rats is controlled by the same DNA region that, in part, determines voluntary intake of ethanol consumption. Further fine mapping of the QTL region should help in discovering if the same DNA sequences that influence ethanol intake also significantly influence risk behavior.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Methamphetamine (MA) is a widely abused psychostimulant that has been shown to evoke an array of neurobiological abnormalities and cognitive deficits in humans and in rodent models (Marshall & O'Dell, 2012). Alterations in cognitive function after repeated drug use may lead to impaired decision-making, a lack of behavioral control, and ultimately the inability to abstain from drug use. Human studies have shown that alterations in neurobiology resulting from prolonged MA use may lead to a number of cognitive deficits, including impairments in executive function, learning, memory, and impulsivity. These impairments, specifically those that engage the prefrontal cortex (PFC) or hippocampus (HC), may persist or recover based on the duration of abstinence. In rodents, repeated intermittent injections of MA yield protracted changes in neurobiology and behavior, which have been shown to effectively model a number of the biological and cognitive abnormalities observed in addiction. In order to assess the temporal evolution of impaired cognitive function throughout abstinence, sensitization was first induced in rats (7 x 5.0 mg/kg MA over 14 days). MA-treated rats initially exhibited a robust increase in locomotion that transitioned to stereotypy as the induction phase progressed. Then, the effects of MA sensitization on social interaction (SI), temporal order recognition (TOR) and novel object recognition (NOR) was assessed at one-day and 30-days post induction. No differences were observed in SI in either group or after a single injection of MA. However, an acute injection of 5.0 mg/kg of MA 30-minutes prior to testing dramatically reduced SI time. Impairments in TOR and NOR were observed in MA-treated rats after one day of abstinence, and impairments in TOR, but not NOR, were observed on day 30 of abstinence. No differences in TOR and NOR after a single injection of MA or saline were observed. These data establish that after 30 days of abstinence from a sensitizing regimen of MA, the ability to recall the temporal sequence that two stimuli were encountered was impaired and that was not attributable to impaired novelty detection. These data also suggest that at least some of the neurocognitive abnormalities caused by chronic MA administration may normalize after prolonged abstinence, since the ability to detect novelty recovered after 30 days of abstinence. These data provide compelling support that, since MA-sensitization caused temporal deficits in memory, PFC and HC function may be differentially impaired throughout the time course of abstinence.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Approximately 2.8% of the world population is currently infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV). Neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) are often generated in chronic hepatitis C patients yet fail to control the infection. In the first two chapters of this study, we focused on two alternative routes of HCV transmission, which may contribute to HCV’s immune evasion and establishment of chronic infection. HCV was transmitted via a cell-cell contact-mediated (CCCM) route and in the form of exosomes. Formation of HCV infection foci resulted from CCCM HCV transfer and was cell density-dependent. Moreover, CCCM HCV transfer occurred rapidly, involved all four known HCV receptors and intact actin cytoskeleton, and led to productive HCV infection. Furthermore, live cell imaging revealed the temporal and spatial details of the transfer process. Lastly, HCV from HCV-infected hepatocytes and patient plasma occurred in both exosome-free and exosome-associated forms and the exosome-associated HCV remained infectious, even though HCV infection did not significantly alter exosome secretion. In the third chapter, we characterized HCV interaction with astrocytes, one of the putative HCV target cells in the brain. HCV infection causes the central nervous system (CNS) abnormalities in more than 50% of chronically infected subjects but the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. We showed that primary human astrocytes (PHA) were very inefficiently infected by HCV, either in the free virus form or through cell-cell contact. PHA expressed all known HCV receptors but failed to support HCV entry. HCV IRES-mediated translation was functional in PHA and further enhanced by miR122 expression. Nevertheless, PHA did not support HCV replication regardless of miR122 expression. To our great surprise, HCV exposure induced robust IL-18 expression in PHA and exhibited direct neurotoxicity. In summary, we showed that CCCM HCV transfer and exosome-mediated HCV infection constituted important routes for HCV infection and dissemination and that astrocytes did not support productive HCV infection and replication, but HCV interactions with astrocytes and neurons alone might be sufficient to cause CNS dysfunction. These findings provide new insights into HCV infection of hepatocytes and astrocytes and shall aid in the development of new and effective strategies for preventing and treating HCV infection.