Preclinical results support the use of N-methyl D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) modulators for cognition enhancement therapeutics. Pregnenolone sulfate (PregS) is a neuroactive steroid derived from cholesterol that augments long term potentiation (LTP) in hippocampal slices and improves memory performance in rats and mice. At micromolar concentrations, PregS is a subtype selective positive allosteric modulator of NMDARs at NR2A and NR2B containing receptors, and at concentrations ranging from pM - nM induces NMDAR-dependent dopamine release in the striatum and from striatal synaptosomes. In this report, we observe that micromolar [PregS] induces an increase in levels of neuronal intracellular calcium ([Ca^2+]i) and surface NMDARs in cortical neurons. Moreover, our results show that PregS stimulated upregulation of surface NR1 subunits in cortical neurons is dependent on NMDARs but independent of channel activity. As PregS has been detected in brain at bulk concentrations of 0.1 nM to 5 nM, we asked whether low, picomolar concentrations of PregS might alter [Ca^2+] levels. We report here that PregS increases [Ca^2+]i signal in cortical neurons in a voltage-gated Na^+ channel and NMDAR-NR2B dependent manner with an EC50 of ~2 pM, at least 6 orders of magnitude higher affinity than its rapid potentiating effect upon the NMDAR-mediated ionotropic response, and within the range of PregS detected in bulk brain tissue. Additionally, calcium (Ca^2+) activation of cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) is critical to the protein synthesis-dependent component of LTP and important in associated behavioral measures of learning and memory. Increased [Ca^2+]i levels are known to induce CREB activation and we now show that 50 pM PregS induces a 44 ± 13% increase in the ratio of pCREB to total CREB that is dependent upon ERK signaling and canonical excitatory synaptic transmission: this includes voltage gated Na+ channels, NMDARs, and voltage-gated Ca^2+ channel activation. The results taken together indicate that PregS may be a useful platform for the development of high-affinity positive modulators of NMDAR-signaling that can be used as cognitive enhancers to treat a variety of neurological disorders: such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and schizophrenia.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Parkinson disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease. It is characterized by loss of dopaminergic cells in the substantia nigra, which causes loss of dopaminergic synapses onto striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs). Dendritic spines that are localized to these striatal MSNs receive synaptic inputs from both the nigral dopamine neurons and cortical glutamate neurons. Signaling downstream of excitatory, glutamatergic drive is modulated by dopamine. This tripartite connection: glutamate, dopamine, and MSN dendritic spine, is important for normal motor function. Glutamate released from presynaptic terminals binds to and activates two classes of inotropic glutamate receptors that are localized to dendritic spines on striatal MSNs: the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR) and the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR). Once these receptors are activated, they allow for Ca2+ influx, which in turn activates Ca2+-dependent processes that underlie neural plasticity, including long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD). Proper machinery in the pre- and post-synaptic neurons is required for normal signal transduction. Moreover, this signal transduction requires proper organization of synaptic proteins, which is achieved by specific protein-protein interactions. These protein-protein interactions are dynamic and can be modulated under various conditions, including pathological changes in the phosphorylation status of a specific protein. Catalytically active proteins called phosphatases and kinases specifically regulate the phosphorylation status of synaptic proteins. Pathologically, in PD there is increased autophosphorylation and activation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII). This increased phosphorylation may be due to changes in the activity of the serine/threonine protein phosphatase 1 (PP1), a highly conserved protein serine/threonine phosphatase that has a diverse set of functions in eukaryotes. Serine/threonine phosphatase substrate specificity is obtained via interactions with targeting and regulatory proteins. One such protein, spinophilin, is a scaffolding protein that targets PP1 to various synaptic substrates to regulate their phosphorylation. Interestingly, the association of PP1 with spinophilin is enhanced in a rat model of PD. The NMDAR is another protein that has altered phosphorylation in animal models of PD. We have found that there is a decrease in the NMDAR-spinophilin interaction in an animal model of PD. Here, we have found that spinophilin and the NMDAR interact in brain tissue and when overexpressed in a mammalian cell system. Moreover, we have identified novel mechanisms that regulate this interaction and have identified putative consequences of altering this association. These studies give us novel insight into mechanisms and consequences underlying pathological changes observed in an animal model of PD. Understanding these changes will inform novel therapeutic targets that may be useful in modulating striatal function.

No description available.

No description available.

Calcium-influx through ionotropic glutamate receptors expressed on non-excitable cells, such as CNS glia, may regulate important cell events via intracellular signaling mechanisms. Oligodendrocytes and oligodendrocyte progenitors (OPCs), two glial populations supporting CNS myelination and myelin repair, express AMPA and NMDA receptors. Although calcium-influx through these receptors is thought to cause glutamate excitotoxicity to oligodendrocytes in CNS injuries, more recent studies suggest that AMPA or NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission between neurons and OPCs plays a positive role in neuronal activity-dependent oligodendrocyte development and regeneration. Given the opposing roles of glutamate receptors in oligodendrocyte death and repair, the clinical relevance of these receptors in white matter injuries remain unclear. Another major challenge for exploring the role of these receptors in white matter injuries is that OPCs and neurons express a similar complement of AMPA and NMDA receptor subunits, which has complicated the interpretation of pharmacological manipulations and global genetic deletion approaches. To define the cell autonomous role of AMPA and NMDA receptor-mediated calcium signaling in oligodendroglia, I abolished the calcium influx through glutamate receptors using two different genetic approaches, and examined their impacts on oligodendrocyte development, injury-induced cell death, and regeneration. First, I employed a new mouse line which allows overexpression of GluA2, the calcium-impermeable AMPA receptor subunit, in a Cre activity-dependent manner. After crossing these mice with OPC- or oligodendrocyte-lineage-specific Cre mice, I applied hypoxic-ischemic injury to these multiple transgenic mice. Surprisingly, even though AMPA receptor-mediated calcium influx was blocked in OPCs, oligodendrogenesis or myelin integrity was not affected. However, GluA2 overexpression significantly promoted oligodendrocyte regeneration and OPC proliferation after injury, while the same manipulation in oligodendrocytes did not protect them from the initial cell loss. Moreover, GluA2 overexpression also stimulated transcriptional activities linked to myelinogenesis, even without injury. Second, I used conditional knockout mice for Grin1, the gene encoding an essential subunit of NMDA receptor complexes. As with GluA2 overexpressing mice, the removal of NMDA receptors from OPCs or all oligodendroglia did not significantly change normal oligodendrocyte development. However, the ablation of NMDA receptor in OPCs exacerbated oligodendrocyte loss by impairing new oligodendrogenesis in hypoxic-ischemic injury. These results suggest that neither AMPA receptors nor NMDA receptors mediate glutamate excitotoxicity in oligodendrocytes in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic injury. Instead, these receptors play distinct roles in post-injury oligodendrocyte development: AMPA receptor-mediated calcium suppresses oligodendrocyte regeneration, and NMDA receptor signaling supports oligodendrocyte regeneration after injury. / Biomedical Sciences

The somatosensory corticothalamic (CT) circuit processes ascending sensory signals, and disruption to the balance of excitation and inhibition (E/I) within CT circuitry leads to absence seizures, sleep disorders, and attention deficits. E/I balance may be restored by independently modulating excitatory CT input to the ventral posteromedial (VPM) thalamus and inhibitory input to the VPM through the CT-thalamic reticular nucleus (nRT)-VPM pathway. This work revealed novel N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) nucleus-specific and frequency-dependent functional diversity in the somatosensory CT circuit. Specifically, these findings illustrate the different effects of NMDAR negative modulation in the nRT and the VPM, which offers a method to preferentially decrease high frequency excitatory CT input to the VPM while having no significant effect on nRT activity. These results demonstrate the potential of utilizing NMDAR selective modulators to decrease overall excitation within the somatosensory CT circuit. Further investigation is required to elucidate the precise mechanisms underlying this phenomenon, including where NMDARs are localized at CT synapses and the effect of positive NMDAR modulators on nRT and VPM activity. / Master of Science / The sensory gating mechanism helps our brain to select essential sensory information to process. Impairment of this sensory gating has been reported in epilepsy, schizophrenia, and autism. The somatosensory corticothalamic (CT) circuit oversea the sensory gating process by adjusting how much excitation and inhibition signals are integrated into the thalamus. Disruption of the balance of excitation and inhibition (E/I) within CT circuitry leads to the absence seizures, sleep disorders, and attention deficits. Our work revealed one of the glutamate receptors N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), has nucleus-specific and frequency-dependent functional diversity in the somatosensory CT circuit. By targeting the different NMDAR subunits in the circuit, we were able to preferentially decrease high-frequency excitatory input to the thalamus while having no significant effect on inhibitory input. These results offer the potential to utilize NMDAR selective modulators to decrease overall excitation within the somatosensory CT circuit, which is useful to restore the disrupted E/I balance in the thalamus from a variety of neurological diseases. Further investigation is required to elucidate the precise mechanisms underlying this phenomenon.

Yes / The antidiuretic hormone arginine vasopressin (AVP) regulates water homeostasis, blood pressure and a range of stress responses. It is synthesized in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary into the general circulation upon a range of stimuli. While the mechanisms leading to AVP secretion have been widely investigated, the molecular mechanisms regulating AVP gene expression are mostly unclear. Here we investigated the neurotransmitters and signal transduction pathways that activate AVP gene expression in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the rat using acute brain slices and quantitative real-time PCR. We show that stimulation with l-glutamate robustly induced AVP gene expression in acute hypothalamic brain slices containing the PVN. More specifically, we show that AVP transcription was stimulated by NMDA. Using pharmacological treatments, our data further reveal that the activation of ERK1/2 (PD184352), CaMKII (KN-62) and PI3K (LY294002; 740 Y-P) is involved in the NMDA-induced AVP gene expression in the PVN. Together, this study identifies NMDA-mediated cell signalling pathways that regulate AVP gene expression in the rat PVN. / Supported by a generous donation from Jonathan Feuer.

Concussion is the most common form of brain injury, comprising over 80% of traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) occurring in the United States and around the world. While many individuals are able to fully recover in the weeks following a concussion, an estimated 50% of patients go on to suffer from persistent symptoms that may range from months to years in duration. Among the most common complaints of those with persistent symptoms is sadness or depression, and significantly elevated rates of suicide have been reported in this population. Females are more likely to develop persistent symptoms and have reported higher rates of neuropsychiatric symptoms than males following injury. Altered glutamatergic neurotransmission has been implicated as a possible cause of depression following concussion due to similarities in glutamatergic changes that occur following concussion and during depression, independently of brain injury. Excitotoxicity is known to occur following TBI, resulting in neuronal death, and dysfunction in the cells that survive. Glutamatergic dysfunction occurring in regions such as the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex or amygdala, may be a driver of depressed mood or major depressive disorder (MDD) in concussed individuals as these regions, among others, have previously been linked to MDD. There are currently no approved pharmacological treatments for TBI symptoms. Therefore, gaining insight into chronic pathophysiology underlying TBI symptoms, including depression, is essential to support the development of therapeutic approaches for patients. The glutamate system represents a promising avenue of investigation in the context of chronic TBI pathophysiology. Using a clinically-relevant rodent model of concussion, this work sought to elucidate chronic glutamatergic changes occurring in the brain in association with the development of depression-like behavior following injury. Delayed-onset deficits in social and self-care behaviors were observed in association with region-specific changes in N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor and glutamate transporter expression in injured male animals. Females responded differently to injury, showing disinhibition and compulsive behaviors in conjunction with upregulation of glutamatergic signaling proteins. Further, this work aimed to investigate chronic sex-specific responses to TBI. Direct comparisons of behavioral changes in injured males and females demonstrated differences in both the emergence and nature of behavioral deficits. Examinations of hippocampal subregions showed deeper specificity in expressional changes in glutamatergic markers with both region- and sex-specific alterations observed at a chronic time point. Additionally, proteomic analysis was employed to evaluate widespread protein-level changes in the injured frontal cortex, and results revealed significant dysregulation in pathways involved in excitatory neurotransmission and calcium signaling. However, the dysregulated proteins within these pathways differed in a sex-dependent manner, indicating a sexual dimorphism in chronic TBI pathophysiology. Potential drug targets were also identified for investigation in future studies. The fundamental work presented in these studies provides strong evidence of dynamic, sex-specific modifications in the glutamate system in association with chronic TBI deficits in a translational model, ultimately providing a foundation for future development of therapeutic options to improve the lives of patients suffering with persistent symptoms. / Doctor of Philosophy / Concussion is the most common form of brain injury, comprising over 80% of traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) occurring in the United States and around the world. While many individuals are able to fully recover in the weeks following a concussion, an estimated 50% of patients go on to suffer from persistent symptoms that may range from months to years in duration. Among the most common complaints of those with persistent symptoms is sadness or depression, and significantly elevated rates of suicide have been reported in this population. Females are also more likely to develop persistent concussion symptoms and tend to experience more severe symptoms than males, but the reasons for this are not known. Changes in important signaling proteins, which allow neurons to properly communicate with one another, have been observed in the brains of concussed patients. Changes in the same proteins have been reported in depressed patients, leading to the belief that these signaling proteins may be involved in the development of depression after a brain injury. These proteins are involved in glutamate signaling, and glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. Excitatory neurotransmission is responsible for activating receptors which can lead to the firing of neurons, hence its importance in neuron communication. There are currently no approved treatments for TBI symptoms. Therefore, gaining insight into the chronic biological changes underlying TBI symptoms, including depression, is essential to support the development of therapies for patients. Using a rodent model of concussion, this work identified long-term changes in important glutamate signaling proteins in injured animals which were observed alongside depression-like behaviors. Injured male rodents were less social and were less motivated to take care of themselves, similar to humans with major depressive disorder (MDD). Female rodents showed different changes in depression-like behaviors and also developed behaviors similar to humans with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). This work demonstrated the development of sex-specific symptoms in injured animals, and these were accompanied by different changes in key glutamate signaling proteins, which suggests problems in neuron communication due to injury. These protein changes were detected in regions of the brain linked to MDD. The fundamental work presented in these studies provides strong evidence of dynamic, sex-specific modifications in the glutamate system in association with chronic TBI symptoms, ultimately providing a foundation for future development of therapeutic options to improve the lives of patients suffering with persistent symptoms.

Les neurones établissent entre eux de nombreux contacts synaptiques, et l'on estime qu’en moyenne un neurone peut avoir dix mille contacts avec les neurones de son voisinage. L'une des synapses les plus importantes et les plus étudiées, dont les dysfonctionnements conduisent à des pathologies du cerveau, est la synapse excitatrice glutamatergique. Dans l’hippocampe, les synapses excitatrices présentent une structure postsynaptique particulière, sous la forme d’un renflement de la dendrite appelé épine dendritique. Cette épine possède un domaine particulier, la densité postsynaptique, concentrant de nombreux récepteurs aux glutamates, des protéines d’adhésion ainsi que des protéines d’échafaudage faisant le lien avec les cascades moléculaires intracellulaires et le cytosquelette d’actine. La morphologie de l’épine dendritique ainsi que le nombre de récepteurs présents dans la PSD sont des éléments clés dans la transmission synaptique et les phénomènes de potentiation et de dépression à long terme (LTP & LTD). Lors de ma thèse, j’ai identifié Scribble1 comme une nouvelle protéine régulant le trafic des récepteurs NMDA. Scribble1 est surtout connue pour son implication dans des processus de polarité, division et migration cellulaire. En modulant le taux de Scribble1, j’ai montré que je pouvais affecter le nombre et la morphologie des épines des neurones hippocampaux, ainsi que la polymérisation de l’actine. Ensuite, j’ai démontré que Scribble1 interagissait directement avec les récepteurs NMDA et permettait leur recyclage à la membrane. Enfin, chez le neurone immature, Scribble1 est impliqué dans la migration du cône axonal. Chez un animal mutant, qui n’exprime que 50% de la protéine (circletail) les performances mnésiques et sociales de l’animal sont perturbées, validant le rôle de la protéine au niveau du système nerveux. / One of the most studied and more important synapse is the glutamatergic excitatory synapse, which dysfunctions lead to brain pathologies. In the hippocampus, the most represented synapses are glutamatergic synapses using glutamate as neurotransmitter. Postsynaptic structures, such as dendritic spines, concentrate many glutamate receptors, adhesion proteins and scaffold proteins bridging receptors to molecular cascades and intracellular actin cytoskeleton. The morphology of the dendritic spine and the number of glutamate receptors at the surface of the spine are key-elements in synaptic transmission, such as of long-term potentiation (LTP). In this study, I identify Scribble1 as an important regulator of NMDA receptors trafficking. Scribble1 is well known for its roles in cell polarity, division and migration processes. First, I show that Scribble1 gain- and loss-of-function affect the number and morphology of spines, as well as the actin polymerization. Next, I showed that Scribble1 interacts directly with the NMDA receptor and stimulates its recycling to the membrane. Finally, in immature neuron, Scribble1 is involved in axon growth cone migration. In a Scribble1 mutant animal model, circletail, we observed disruption of synaptic transmission and memory and social performance defects, compatible with a role of the protein in central nervous system function.

La synapse glutamatergique assure la majeure partie de la transmission excitatrice du cerveau et des changements de sa force constituent un corrélat cellulaire des processus d’apprentissage et de mémoire. Ces processus adaptatifs nécessitent souvent l’activation des récepteurs ionotropiques au glutamate de type NMDA (NMDAR) et l’influx calcique dans le compartiment postsynaptique qui suit leur ouverture. Jusqu’alors, l’activation des voix de signalisations sous-jacentes était considérée comme le seul mécanisme essentiel à la plasticité synaptique. Il est apparu récemment que les NMDAR diffusent à la surface des neurones, assurant un remodelage dynamique de leur distribution. La possibilité que la dynamique de surface des NMDAR joue un rôle déterminant dans les propriétés plastiques des synapses a donc émergé. Au cours de ma thèse, je me suis intéressé à cette problématique à l’aide d’approches d’imagerie dynamique à haute-résolution (ex. suivi de nanoparticules uniques, FRAP) et d’outils moléculaires de haute spécificité (ex. ligand biomimétique, x-link de récepteurs via les anticorps). J’ai dans un premier temps étudié la dynamique de surface des NMDAR endogènes au cours de la plasticité synaptique au sein de réseaux neuronaux hippocampiques in vitro. Mes résultats révèlent que l’induction de la potentialisation à long terme (LTP) des synapses glutamatergiques s’accompagne d’une redistribution latérale des NMDAR de surface dans la région postsynaptique. De façon remarquable, la réduction de la diffusion de surface des NMDAR via des anticorps commerciaux, mais aussi des anticorps purifiés de patients atteints d’encéphalite auto-immune, ciblant des épitopes extracellulaires des NMDAR, bloque la LTP. Dans un second temps, je me suis intéressé à la régulation de cette dynamique des NMDAR. En collaboration avec le groupe de Stéphane Oliet (CRI, INSERM), nous avons découvert qu’une redistribution rapide de surface des NMDAR s’opère différemment sous l’effet des co-agonistes du récepteur, la glycine et la D-sérine, et cela de façon dépendante des sous-unités GluN2A/GluN2B des NMDAR. De plus, j’ai démontré que l’interaction directe entre les NMDAR et les récepteurs dopaminergiques D1 membranaires contrôle la distribution des deux types de récepteurs aux abords de la synapse et module la plasticité synaptique. L’ensemble de ces données indique que la dynamique de surface des NMDAR est régulée par la présence d’un neuromodulateur, la dopamine, et de co-agonistes, contrôlant de façon dynamique la fenêtre plastique des synapses. / Glutamate synapse mediates most synaptic excitation in the brain and changes in its strength constitute a cellular basis for learning and memory processes. These adaptive properties often require ionotropic glutamate NMDA receptor (NMDAR) and the calcium influx in the postsynaptic compartment following their opening. So far, the activation of the subsequent signaling pathways was considered as the only mechanism essential for synaptic plasticity. It recently appeared that NMDAR diffuse at the neuronal surface, dynamically shaping their distribution. Whether the NMDAR surface dynamics and its potential regulators play an instrumental role in the plastic properties of synapses emerged thus as a possibility. During my PhD, I tackled this question using a combination of high resolution imaging techniques (e.g. single nanoparticle tracking, FRAP) and high specificity molecular approaches (e.g. biomimetic ligand, antibody based receptor cross-link). First, I studied surface dynamics of endogenous NMDAR during synaptic plasticity on hippocampal neurons in vitro. My results reveal that the induction of glutamate synapse long-term potentiation (LTP) is accompanied by a lateral redistribution of surface NMDAR within the postsynaptic area. Strikingly, reducing the surface diffusion of NMDAR using both commercial and purified antibodies from autoimmune encephalitis patients targeting extracellular epitopes of the NMDAR prevents LTP. Second I investigated whether NMDAR dynamics were regulated. In collaboration with Stephane Oliet’s group (CRI, INSERM), we uncovered that rapid surface redistribution can also be achieved differentially using the NMDAR co-agonists, glycine and D-serine, in a GluN2A/GluN2B NMDAR subunit dependent manner. In addition, I demonstrated that the direct interaction between NMDAR and dopamine D1 receptor at the membrane controls both receptors distribution in the synaptic area and modulates synaptic plasticity. Altogether, these data indicate that the NMDAR surface dynamics is regulated by ambient neuromodulators such as dopamine and co-agonists, dynamically controlling then the plastic range of synapses.