Les médicaments antipsychotiques améliorent les symptômes de la schizophrénie, mais peuvent perdre leur efficacité à long terme en sensibilisant le système dopaminergique. Les mécanismes sous-tendant cette sensibilisation ne sont pas connus. Le neuropeptide neurotensine module le système dopaminergique et est régulé par les antipsychotiques dans le noyau accumbens. Dans cette région, la neurotensine peut avoir des effets anti- et pro-dopaminergiques via les récepteurs NTS1. Nous avions pour hypothèse que la neurotensine du noyau accumbens module l’expression de la sensibilisation dopaminergique induite par les antipsychotiques. Ainsi, nous avons traité par intermittence ou continuellement des rats à l’antipsychotique halopéridol. Seule l’administration continue sensibilise le système dopaminergique et donc sensibilise aux effets locomoteurs de l’amphétamine. Des microinjections de neurotensine dans le noyau accumbens ont diminué l’hyperlocomotion induite par l’amphétamine chez les rats témoins et ceux traités par intermittence aux antipsychotiques. Au contraire, la sensibilisation dopaminergique induite par un traitement continu serait liée à une augmentation des effets pro-dopaminergiques de la neurotensine. Ceci est indépendant d’un changement de densité des récepteurs NTS1 dans le noyau accumbens. Un traitement intermittent n’a pas d’effet sur cette mesure également. De plus, autant un traitement antipsychotique continu qu’intermittent augmentent la transcription de proneurotensine. Donc, seule l’altération de la fonction de la neurotensine du noyau accumbens corrèle avec la sensibilisation dopaminergique. En parallèle, dans le caudé-putamen, un traitement continu augmente la transcription de proneurotensine et un traitement intermittent augmente la densité des récepteurs NTS1. En somme, la neurotensine du noyau accumbens module la sensibilisation dopaminergique induite par les antipsychotiques. / Antipsychotic medications improve schizophrenia symptoms, but they can also sensitize the dopamine system over time, consequently leading to impaired treatment efficacy. The mechanisms underlying antipsychotic-evoked dopamine supersensitivity are not known. The neuropeptide neurotensin regulates the dopamine system and can be modulated by antipsychotics, particularly in the nucleus accumbens. In this area, neurotensin has both anti- and pro-dopaminergic effects via an interaction with NTS1 receptors. In the present study, we hypothesized that neurotensin in the nucleus accumbens can modulate the expression of dopamine supersensitivity-evoked by an antipsychotic treatment. We treated rats with the antipsychotic haloperidol administered either intermittently or continuously. Continuous, but not intermittent, haloperidol treatment induces dopamine supersensitivity as shown by an increased locomotor activity induced by amphetamine. Microinjections of neurotensin in the nucleus accumbens diminish amphetamine-induced locomotion in control and intermittently antipsychotic-treated rats. Dopamine supersensitivity-evoked by a continuous antipsychotic treatment is linked to a potential enhancement of the pro-dopaminergic effects of neurotensin. This is not caused by any change in NTS1 receptor levels in the nucleus accumbens. An intermittent treatment did not alter NTS1 receptor levels as well in this area. Also, both continuous and intermittent treatment increased neurotensin transcription in the nucleus accumbens. Thus, only neurotensin altered function correlates with dopamine supersensitivity. In the caudate-putamen, continuous antipsychotic treatment increased neurotensin transcription, whereas intermittent treatment increased NTS1 receptor levels. In summary, neurotensin in the nucleus accumbens can modulate the expression of dopamine supersensitivity-evoked by antipsychotics.

O efeito ansiolítico dos benzodiazepínicos (BZDs) é reduzido depois da primeira exposição ao labirinto em cruz elevado (LCE). Várias hipóteses tem sido formuladas para explicar este fenômeno chamado one-trial tolerance (OTT), entretanto, nenhuma delas é conclusiva. No presente estudo, examinamos este fenômeno através da análise etofarmacológica de ratos submetidos ao LCE em duas sessões (T1 e T2), e do conteúdo de monoaminas presentes no córtex pré-frontal, amígdala, hipocampo e núcleo accumbens através da técnica de Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Pressão. Ratos machos Wistar foram tratados com salina ou midazolam (0,5 mg/Kg, i.p.) antes de T1 e T2 e imediatamente depois, seus encéfalos foram dissecados e as estruturas analisadas. Como controle à análise neuroquímica foram incluídos animais tratados com salina e não expostos ao LCE. A administração de midazolam antes de T1 promoveu efeito ansiolítico, aumentando a exploração dos braços abertos, porcentagem de entradas e tempo de permanência nos mesmos. Em T2 foi observado redução da exploração dos braços abertos em relação a T1. Esses resultados sugerem que há uma mudança no estado emocional do animal em T2, que é resistente a ação ansiolítica dos BZDs. Com relação aos resultados dos estudos neuroquímicos, foi observado redução dos conteúdos de serotonina (5- HT) e noradrenalina (NA) no córtex pré-frontal, na amígdala, no hipocampo e no núcleo accumbens depois de T1 e T2. Houve também, redução do conteúdo de dopamina (DA) na amígdala depois de ambas sessões. Não ocorreram mudanças nas taxas de renovação dessas monoaminas em nenhuma das estruturas analisadas. Através desses resultados, pode-se inferir que a estimulação aversiva do LCE causa alterações na neurotransmissão monoaminérgica da amígdala, como também das outras estruturas límbicas estudadas neste trabalho. Essas alterações neuroquímicas depois da primeira exposição ao LCE, devem representar alterações adaptativas na neurotransmissão do sistema límbico que podem estar associadas ao fenômeno da OTT. / Numerous reports have demonstrated that a single exposure to a variety of stressful experiences enhances fearful reactions when behavior is subsequently tested in current animal models of anxiety. Until now, no study has examined the neurochemical changes during the test and retest sessions of freely-behaving rats in the elevated plus-maze (EPM), one of the most traditional tests of anxiety. This work is a new approach looking at the changes in dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT) and noradrenaline (NA) levels in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus and nucleus accumbens during one-trial learning development. We used high pressure liquid chromatography to assess the concentrations of these neurotransmitters and their metabolites in animals injected with saline or midazolam upon single or double exposure to the EPM. For the biochemical analysis an extra control group treated with saline and not exposed to EPM was added. The data showed that stressful stimuli present in the maze were able to elicit one-trial learning to midazolam on re-exposure. Significant decreases in 5-HT and NA contents in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus and nucleus accumbens occurred in saline and midazolam injected animals submitted to the first and second trials. Significant decreases in DA content were also observed in the amygdala after both trials. There was no change in the turnover of these monoamines in any structure studied. It is suggested that aversive stimuli inherent to the EPM cause primary changes in the neurochemical mechanisms of the amygdala and also influence the activity of monoaminergic neurotransmission in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and nucleus accumbens. The observed reduction in monoaminergic transmission in limbic structures after the first stressful experience in the EPM seems to represent adaptive changes and may be associated to the phenomenon of ?one-trial tolerance?.

Os transtornos do comportamento disruptivo (TDC), representados pelo transtorno de oposição desafiante e pelo transtorno de conduta, e o transtorno de déficit de atenção/hiperatividade (TDAH) são transtornos intimamente relacionados. Teorias e estudos sugerem o envolvimento de regiões relacionadas ao processamento de emoções e de recompensas, entre elas a amígdala e o núcleo accumbens (NAcc), em ambos os transtornos. Avaliar as conexões cerebrais do NAcc e da amígdala nos TCD e no TDAH pode contribuir para a elucidação da neurobiologia dos transtornos e de comportamentos relacionados. O objetivo do presente estudo foi caracterizar a conectividade funcional do NAcc e da amígdala em crianças com TDAH e com TCD e avaliar a relação entre a conectividade funcional destas regiões e comportamentos atípicos característicos e comuns a ambos os transtornos. Neste estudo, crianças (idade média = 11,28 anos) classificadas como apresentando TCD (n=22), TDAH (n=25) ou desenvolvimento típico (DT; n=236) foram submetidas a sessão de ressonância magnética funcional de repouso. Foi avaliada a conectividade funcional de repouso de 2 regiões de interesse (NAcc e amígdala) ao restante do cérebro. Em uma abordagem categórica, os mapas de conectividade foram comparados entre os grupos. Além disto, em uma abordagem dimensional, conectividade funcional do NAcc e da amígdala foi correlacionada a pontuações em 3 dimensões de comportamento: desatenção/hiperatividade, agressividade e problemas de conduta, gerando 3 mapas de correlação (conectividade x comportamento) para cada região. Nesta etapa toda a amostra foi incluída (n=283). Os resultados da abordagem categórica mostraram algumas conexões específicas do TCD e do TDAH. As conexões do NAcc à insula posterior e ao precuneus diferenciaram os TCD do DT e do TDAH. A conexão entre amígdala e giro lingual diferenciou TDAH de DT e de TCD. O TDAH também exibiu conectividade atípica da amígadala com o giro pré-central e com o lóbulo parietal inferior, comparado a crianças com DT. Não foi encontrada conectividade funcional alterada do NAcc em crianças com TDAH ou da amígdala em crianças com TCD, comparadas a crianças com DT. A abordagem dimensional demonstrou um padrão diferente de resultados. Pontuações de desatenção/hiperatividade e agressividade estiveram associadas a conectividade do NAcc ao giro fusiforme e ao córtex pré-frontal dorso-medial. Desatenção/ hiperatividade esteve correlacionada com conectividade da amígdala ao lóbulo parietal inferior, ao giro temporal médio e ao sulco pré-central superior. Agressividade esteve correlacionada com conectividade da amígdala ao precuneus e ao giro frontal superior. Problemas de conduta estiveram correlacionados com a conectividade NAcc-giro frontal superior e com a conectividade da amígdala ao giro cingulado posterior, ao precuneus, ao córtex pré-frontal medial e ao giro lingual. Os resultados indicam, portanto, que existem conexões funcionais do NAcc e da amígdala especificamente associadas aos TCD ou ao TDAH e que comportamentos atípicos comuns a ambos os transtornos estão relacionados a alterações na conectividade funcional do NAcc e da amígdala. Concluindo, a abordagem dimensional pode complementar a abordagem categórica na avaliação da neurobiologia dos TCD e do TDAH / Disruptive behavior disorders (DBD), represented by oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder, and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are intrinsically related disorders. Theories and studies suggest the involvement of regions related to emotional and reward processing, among them the amygdala and the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), in both disorders. Evaluating brain connections of the NAcc and of the amygdala in DBD and in ADHD may contribute to elucidate the neurobiology of the disorders and of related behaviors. The objective of this study was to characterize functional connectivity of the NAcc and of the amygdala in children with ADHD and with DBD, and to evaluated the relationship between functional connectivity of those regions and atypical behaviors characteristic and common to both disorders. In this study, children (mean age= 11.28 years) classified as DBD (n=22), ADHD (n=25), or typical development (TD; n=236) underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging session. Whole-brain resting-state functional connectivity of 2 regions of interest (NAcc and amygdala) was evaluated. In a categorical approach, connectivity maps were compared between groups. Furthermore, in a dimensional approach, functional connectivity of the NAcc and of the amygdala was correlated to scores in 3 behavior dimensions: inattention/hyperactivity, aggressiveness, and conduct problems, producing 3 correlation maps (connectivity vs. behavior) for each region. For this phase the entire sample was included (n=283). Results from the categorical approach showed some connections specific to DBD and to ADHD. NAcc connections to posterior insula and to precuneus differed DBD from TD and from ADHD. The connection between amygdala and lingual gyrus differed ADHD from TDC and from DBD. ADHD also exhibited atypical amygdala connectivity with precentral gyrus and with inferior parietal lobule, compared to children with TD. There was no altered NAcc functional connectivity in children with ADHD or altered amygdala functional connectivity in children with DBD, compared to children with TD. The dimensional approach showed a different pattern of results. Inattention/hyperactivity and aggression scores were associated with NAcc connectivity to fusiform gyrus and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. Inattention/hyperactivity was correlated with amygdala connectivity to inferior parietal lobule, middle temporal gyrus, and superior precentral sulcus. Aggression was related with amygdala connectivity to precuneus and superior frontal gyrus. Conduct problems were correlated with NAcc-superior frontal gyrus connectivity, and with amygdala connectivity to posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus, medial prefrontal cortex, and lingual gyrus. Results indicate, therefore, that there are NAcc and amygdala functional connections specifically associated with DBD or with ADHD, and that atypical behaviors common to both disorders are related to changes in functional connectivity of the NAcc and of the amygdala. In conclusion, the dimensional approach may complement the categorical approach in evaluating the neurobiology of DBD and of ADHD

A amígdala expandida central (EAc) inclui os núcleos central da amígdala (CeA), intersticial lateral da estria terminal (BSTl), intersticial do ramo posterior da comissura anterior (IPAC) e amígdala expandida sublenticular (SLEA). A EAc e a concha do acumbens possuem densa inervação dopaminérgica, implicada em processos motivacionais, e cuja origem foi estudada com a técnica de dupla marcação celular, combinando-se imunofluorescência para o traçador retrógrado Fluoro-Gold e para a tirosina hidroxilase. Nossos resultados indicam que a inervação dopaminérgica do CeA e BSTl é semelhante, se originando em igual proporção da área tegmental ventral (A10) e do núcleo dorsal da rafe/substância cinzenta periaquedutal (A10dc). A inervação dopaminérgica da SLEA, IPAC e concha do acumbens se origina principalmente do grupo A10. Com um anticorpo específico para dopamina vimos que parte da projeção do A10dc para o CeA é de fato dopaminérgica. Os grupos dopaminérgicos diencefálicos não inervam a EAc e a concha do acumbens. / The central extended amygdala (EAc) includes the central amygdaloid nucleus (CeA), lateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTl), interstitial nucleus of the posterior limb of the anterior commissure (IPAC) and sublenticular extended amygdala (SLEA). The dopaminergic innervation of the EAc and nucleus accumbens shell is functionally related to motivational processes. Its origin was studied by combining immunofluorescence to tyrosine hydroxylase and Fluoro-Gold, used as retrograde tracer. Our results show that dopaminergic fibers to the CeA and BSTl derive in equal proportion from neurons in ventral tegmental area (A10) and in dorsal raphe nucleus/periaqueductal gray (A10dc). Dopaminergic inputs to SLEA, IPAC and accumbens shell arise mainly from A10 neurons. Using a dopamine antibody, we confirmed that A10dc projections to CeA are in part dopaminergic. Futhermore, the present data indicate that the diencephalic dopaminergic groups do not project to EAc and accumbens shell.

A major challenge in the field of neuroscience is to link behavior with specific neuronal circuitries and cellular events. One way of facing this challenge is to identify unique cellular markers and thus have the ability to, through various mouse genetics tools, mimic, manipulate and control various aspects of neuronal activity to decipher their correlation to behavior. The Vesicular Glutamate Transporter 2 (VGLUT2) packages glutamate into presynaptic vesicles for axonal terminal release. In this thesis, VGLUT2 was used to specifically target cell populations within the basal ganglia of mice with the purpose of investigating its connectivity, function and involvement in behavior. The motor and limbic loops of the basal ganglia are important for processing of voluntary movement and emotions. During such physiological events, dopamine plays a central role in modulating the activity of these systems. The brain reward system is mainly formed by dopamine projections from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the ventral striatum. Certain dopamine neurons within the VTA exhibit the ability to co-release dopamine and glutamate. In paper I, glutamate and dopamine co-release was targeted and our results demonstrate that the absence of VGLUT2 in dopamine neurons leads to perturbations of reward consumption and reward-associated memory, probably due to reduced DA release observed in the striatum as detected by in vivo chronoamperometry. In papers II and IV, VGLUT2 in a specific subpopulation within the subthalamic nucleus (STN) was identified and targeted. Based on the described role of the STN in movement control, we hypothesized that the mice would be hyperlocomotive. As shown in paper II, this was indeed the case. In paper IV, a putative reward-related phenotype was approached and we could show reduced operant-self administration of sugar and altered dopamine release levels suggesting a role for the STN in reward processes. In paper III, we investigated and identified age- and sex-dimorphisms in dopamine kinetics in the dorsal striatum of one of the most commonly used mouse lines worldwide, the C57/Bl6J. Our results point to the importance of taking these dimorphisms into account when utilizing the C57/Bl6J strain as model for neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:22:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2640.pdf: 532825 bytes, checksum: 85901050327f52892439c98345181eee (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-09-24 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / Nicotine and psychostimulants are often abused in combination. Drug abuse often begins during adolescence. Exposure to drugs of abuse during adolescence can have long-term consequences. We have previously demonstrated that adolescent rats pretreated with amphetamine displayed behavioral sensitization to nicotine, which persisted until adulthood. Moreover, the pretreatment with nicotine during adolescence sensitized adolescent and adult animals to amphetamine-induced locomotor activation. In the present study we investigated whether the behavioral cross-sensitization between nicotine and amphetamine is related to changes in dopamine or serotonin neurotransmission. To this end adolescent rats (post-natal day 28) were treated with nicotine (0.4 mg/Kg), amphetamine (5.0 mg/Kg) or saline during seven days. Three or thirty days after the last injection animals received an acute injection of nicotine (0.4 mg/Kg), amphetamine (5.0 mg/Kg for adolescents or 1.0 mg/Kg for adults) or saline. Thirty minutes after challenge rats were sacrificed, decapitated and brains removed. Nucleus accumbens (NAcc) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) were dissected and prepared for HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) analysis. Dopamine, DOPAC, HVA, serotonin and 5-HIAA were measured in these brain regions. Our results showed that: 1) repeated administration of nicotine attenuated the acute effect of amphetamine on NAcc dopamine levels of adolescent rats; 2) repeated administration of nicotine increased the acute effect of amphetamine on PFC dopamine levels of adolescent rats; 3) repeated administration of nicotine, during adolescence, increased the acute effect of amphetamine on PFC dopamine of adult rats. The behavioral cross-sensitization shown previously is not related to alterations in NAcc and PFC concentrations of neurotransmitters and its metabolites. However, neuroadaptations induced by repeated nicotine during adolescence endures until adulthood. / Uma característica comum das substâncias que causam dependência é o aumento gradual e progressivo da atividade locomotora observado após a administração repetida, esse fenômeno é denominado sensibilização comportamental. A sensibilização comportamental resulta de adaptações neuroquímicas e moleculares do sistema dopaminérgico mesocorticolímbico. Foi demonstrado anteriormente a sensibilização cruzada entre nicotina e anfetamina em animais adolescentes e que esse fenômeno permanece até a idade adulta. Nesse trabalho investigamos se a administração repetida com nicotina ou anfetamina, durante a adolescência, pode alterar o efeito agudo dessas substâncias e se essas neuroadaptações persistem até a idade adulta. Para tanto, administramos, por sete dias, nicotina (0,4 mg/Kg), anfetamina (5,0 mg/Kg) ou salina a ratos adolescentes. Três ou trinta dias após a última injeção os animais receberam injeção aguda de nicotina (0,4 mg/Kg), anfetamina (5,0 mg/Kg para adolescentes e 1,0 mg/Kg para adultos) ou salina. Trinta minutos após as injeções os ratos foram sacrificados, decapitados e seus encéfalos removidos. O núcleo acumbens (NAc) e o córtex pré-frontal (CPF) foram retirados e preparados para determinação de dopamina, serotonina e seus metabólitos por cromatografia líquida de alta resolução (HPLC). Os resultados encontrados mostram que: 1) o pré-tratamento com nicotina atenuou o efeito agudo da anfetamina sobre a concentração tecidual de dopamina no Nac de ratos adolescentes; 2) o prétratamento com nicotina aumentou o efeito agudo da anfetamina sobre a concentração tecidual de dopamina no CPF de ratos adolescentes; 3) o prétratamento com nicotina na adolescência aumentou o efeito agudo da anfetamina sobre a concentração tecidual de dopamina no CPF de ratos adultos. Estes resultados não se relacionam à sensibilização cruzada observada anteriormente, mas o tratamento repetido com nicotina promoveu alterações em animais adolescentes que podem ser observadas também na vida adulta.

Os transtornos do comportamento disruptivo (TDC), representados pelo transtorno de oposição desafiante e pelo transtorno de conduta, e o transtorno de déficit de atenção/hiperatividade (TDAH) são transtornos intimamente relacionados. Teorias e estudos sugerem o envolvimento de regiões relacionadas ao processamento de emoções e de recompensas, entre elas a amígdala e o núcleo accumbens (NAcc), em ambos os transtornos. Avaliar as conexões cerebrais do NAcc e da amígdala nos TCD e no TDAH pode contribuir para a elucidação da neurobiologia dos transtornos e de comportamentos relacionados. O objetivo do presente estudo foi caracterizar a conectividade funcional do NAcc e da amígdala em crianças com TDAH e com TCD e avaliar a relação entre a conectividade funcional destas regiões e comportamentos atípicos característicos e comuns a ambos os transtornos. Neste estudo, crianças (idade média = 11,28 anos) classificadas como apresentando TCD (n=22), TDAH (n=25) ou desenvolvimento típico (DT; n=236) foram submetidas a sessão de ressonância magnética funcional de repouso. Foi avaliada a conectividade funcional de repouso de 2 regiões de interesse (NAcc e amígdala) ao restante do cérebro. Em uma abordagem categórica, os mapas de conectividade foram comparados entre os grupos. Além disto, em uma abordagem dimensional, conectividade funcional do NAcc e da amígdala foi correlacionada a pontuações em 3 dimensões de comportamento: desatenção/hiperatividade, agressividade e problemas de conduta, gerando 3 mapas de correlação (conectividade x comportamento) para cada região. Nesta etapa toda a amostra foi incluída (n=283). Os resultados da abordagem categórica mostraram algumas conexões específicas do TCD e do TDAH. As conexões do NAcc à insula posterior e ao precuneus diferenciaram os TCD do DT e do TDAH. A conexão entre amígdala e giro lingual diferenciou TDAH de DT e de TCD. O TDAH também exibiu conectividade atípica da amígadala com o giro pré-central e com o lóbulo parietal inferior, comparado a crianças com DT. Não foi encontrada conectividade funcional alterada do NAcc em crianças com TDAH ou da amígdala em crianças com TCD, comparadas a crianças com DT. A abordagem dimensional demonstrou um padrão diferente de resultados. Pontuações de desatenção/hiperatividade e agressividade estiveram associadas a conectividade do NAcc ao giro fusiforme e ao córtex pré-frontal dorso-medial. Desatenção/ hiperatividade esteve correlacionada com conectividade da amígdala ao lóbulo parietal inferior, ao giro temporal médio e ao sulco pré-central superior. Agressividade esteve correlacionada com conectividade da amígdala ao precuneus e ao giro frontal superior. Problemas de conduta estiveram correlacionados com a conectividade NAcc-giro frontal superior e com a conectividade da amígdala ao giro cingulado posterior, ao precuneus, ao córtex pré-frontal medial e ao giro lingual. Os resultados indicam, portanto, que existem conexões funcionais do NAcc e da amígdala especificamente associadas aos TCD ou ao TDAH e que comportamentos atípicos comuns a ambos os transtornos estão relacionados a alterações na conectividade funcional do NAcc e da amígdala. Concluindo, a abordagem dimensional pode complementar a abordagem categórica na avaliação da neurobiologia dos TCD e do TDAH / Disruptive behavior disorders (DBD), represented by oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder, and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are intrinsically related disorders. Theories and studies suggest the involvement of regions related to emotional and reward processing, among them the amygdala and the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), in both disorders. Evaluating brain connections of the NAcc and of the amygdala in DBD and in ADHD may contribute to elucidate the neurobiology of the disorders and of related behaviors. The objective of this study was to characterize functional connectivity of the NAcc and of the amygdala in children with ADHD and with DBD, and to evaluated the relationship between functional connectivity of those regions and atypical behaviors characteristic and common to both disorders. In this study, children (mean age= 11.28 years) classified as DBD (n=22), ADHD (n=25), or typical development (TD; n=236) underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging session. Whole-brain resting-state functional connectivity of 2 regions of interest (NAcc and amygdala) was evaluated. In a categorical approach, connectivity maps were compared between groups. Furthermore, in a dimensional approach, functional connectivity of the NAcc and of the amygdala was correlated to scores in 3 behavior dimensions: inattention/hyperactivity, aggressiveness, and conduct problems, producing 3 correlation maps (connectivity vs. behavior) for each region. For this phase the entire sample was included (n=283). Results from the categorical approach showed some connections specific to DBD and to ADHD. NAcc connections to posterior insula and to precuneus differed DBD from TD and from ADHD. The connection between amygdala and lingual gyrus differed ADHD from TDC and from DBD. ADHD also exhibited atypical amygdala connectivity with precentral gyrus and with inferior parietal lobule, compared to children with TD. There was no altered NAcc functional connectivity in children with ADHD or altered amygdala functional connectivity in children with DBD, compared to children with TD. The dimensional approach showed a different pattern of results. Inattention/hyperactivity and aggression scores were associated with NAcc connectivity to fusiform gyrus and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. Inattention/hyperactivity was correlated with amygdala connectivity to inferior parietal lobule, middle temporal gyrus, and superior precentral sulcus. Aggression was related with amygdala connectivity to precuneus and superior frontal gyrus. Conduct problems were correlated with NAcc-superior frontal gyrus connectivity, and with amygdala connectivity to posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus, medial prefrontal cortex, and lingual gyrus. Results indicate, therefore, that there are NAcc and amygdala functional connections specifically associated with DBD or with ADHD, and that atypical behaviors common to both disorders are related to changes in functional connectivity of the NAcc and of the amygdala. In conclusion, the dimensional approach may complement the categorical approach in evaluating the neurobiology of DBD and of ADHD

O efeito ansiolítico dos benzodiazepínicos (BZDs) é reduzido depois da primeira exposição ao labirinto em cruz elevado (LCE). Várias hipóteses tem sido formuladas para explicar este fenômeno chamado one-trial tolerance (OTT), entretanto, nenhuma delas é conclusiva. No presente estudo, examinamos este fenômeno através da análise etofarmacológica de ratos submetidos ao LCE em duas sessões (T1 e T2), e do conteúdo de monoaminas presentes no córtex pré-frontal, amígdala, hipocampo e núcleo accumbens através da técnica de Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Pressão. Ratos machos Wistar foram tratados com salina ou midazolam (0,5 mg/Kg, i.p.) antes de T1 e T2 e imediatamente depois, seus encéfalos foram dissecados e as estruturas analisadas. Como controle à análise neuroquímica foram incluídos animais tratados com salina e não expostos ao LCE. A administração de midazolam antes de T1 promoveu efeito ansiolítico, aumentando a exploração dos braços abertos, porcentagem de entradas e tempo de permanência nos mesmos. Em T2 foi observado redução da exploração dos braços abertos em relação a T1. Esses resultados sugerem que há uma mudança no estado emocional do animal em T2, que é resistente a ação ansiolítica dos BZDs. Com relação aos resultados dos estudos neuroquímicos, foi observado redução dos conteúdos de serotonina (5- HT) e noradrenalina (NA) no córtex pré-frontal, na amígdala, no hipocampo e no núcleo accumbens depois de T1 e T2. Houve também, redução do conteúdo de dopamina (DA) na amígdala depois de ambas sessões. Não ocorreram mudanças nas taxas de renovação dessas monoaminas em nenhuma das estruturas analisadas. Através desses resultados, pode-se inferir que a estimulação aversiva do LCE causa alterações na neurotransmissão monoaminérgica da amígdala, como também das outras estruturas límbicas estudadas neste trabalho. Essas alterações neuroquímicas depois da primeira exposição ao LCE, devem representar alterações adaptativas na neurotransmissão do sistema límbico que podem estar associadas ao fenômeno da OTT. / Numerous reports have demonstrated that a single exposure to a variety of stressful experiences enhances fearful reactions when behavior is subsequently tested in current animal models of anxiety. Until now, no study has examined the neurochemical changes during the test and retest sessions of freely-behaving rats in the elevated plus-maze (EPM), one of the most traditional tests of anxiety. This work is a new approach looking at the changes in dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT) and noradrenaline (NA) levels in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus and nucleus accumbens during one-trial learning development. We used high pressure liquid chromatography to assess the concentrations of these neurotransmitters and their metabolites in animals injected with saline or midazolam upon single or double exposure to the EPM. For the biochemical analysis an extra control group treated with saline and not exposed to EPM was added. The data showed that stressful stimuli present in the maze were able to elicit one-trial learning to midazolam on re-exposure. Significant decreases in 5-HT and NA contents in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus and nucleus accumbens occurred in saline and midazolam injected animals submitted to the first and second trials. Significant decreases in DA content were also observed in the amygdala after both trials. There was no change in the turnover of these monoamines in any structure studied. It is suggested that aversive stimuli inherent to the EPM cause primary changes in the neurochemical mechanisms of the amygdala and also influence the activity of monoaminergic neurotransmission in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and nucleus accumbens. The observed reduction in monoaminergic transmission in limbic structures after the first stressful experience in the EPM seems to represent adaptive changes and may be associated to the phenomenon of ?one-trial tolerance?.

A amígdala expandida central (EAc) inclui os núcleos central da amígdala (CeA), intersticial lateral da estria terminal (BSTl), intersticial do ramo posterior da comissura anterior (IPAC) e amígdala expandida sublenticular (SLEA). A EAc e a concha do acumbens possuem densa inervação dopaminérgica, implicada em processos motivacionais, e cuja origem foi estudada com a técnica de dupla marcação celular, combinando-se imunofluorescência para o traçador retrógrado Fluoro-Gold e para a tirosina hidroxilase. Nossos resultados indicam que a inervação dopaminérgica do CeA e BSTl é semelhante, se originando em igual proporção da área tegmental ventral (A10) e do núcleo dorsal da rafe/substância cinzenta periaquedutal (A10dc). A inervação dopaminérgica da SLEA, IPAC e concha do acumbens se origina principalmente do grupo A10. Com um anticorpo específico para dopamina vimos que parte da projeção do A10dc para o CeA é de fato dopaminérgica. Os grupos dopaminérgicos diencefálicos não inervam a EAc e a concha do acumbens. / The central extended amygdala (EAc) includes the central amygdaloid nucleus (CeA), lateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTl), interstitial nucleus of the posterior limb of the anterior commissure (IPAC) and sublenticular extended amygdala (SLEA). The dopaminergic innervation of the EAc and nucleus accumbens shell is functionally related to motivational processes. Its origin was studied by combining immunofluorescence to tyrosine hydroxylase and Fluoro-Gold, used as retrograde tracer. Our results show that dopaminergic fibers to the CeA and BSTl derive in equal proportion from neurons in ventral tegmental area (A10) and in dorsal raphe nucleus/periaqueductal gray (A10dc). Dopaminergic inputs to SLEA, IPAC and accumbens shell arise mainly from A10 neurons. Using a dopamine antibody, we confirmed that A10dc projections to CeA are in part dopaminergic. Futhermore, the present data indicate that the diencephalic dopaminergic groups do not project to EAc and accumbens shell.

L'obésité augmente la susceptibilité aux troubles anxieux et de l’humeur et, à son tour, un affect négatif influence les comportements alimentaires. Faisant partie du circuit de la récompense, le noyau accumbens intègre la signalisation dopaminergique avec des signaux corticaux et traduit ces informations en comportements motivés. Chez le rongeur, une alimentation riche en gras favorise des adaptations dopaminergiques au noyau accumbens et des études d'imagerie révèlent un recrutement amoindri de cette région du cerveau lors de la consommation d’aliments palatables en obésité humaine. Les altérations dopaminergiques au noyau accumbens perturbent les fonctions de récompense et contribuent fortement aux déficits motivationnels couramment observés en dépression. L'obésité induite par la diète résulte d'une surconsommation chronique d'aliments à forte densité énergétique, tels que ceux riches en gras, mais des acides gras alimentaires distincts influencent différemment la santé métabolique et l'humeur. Alors que les acides gras monoinsaturés, prédominants dans le régime méditerranéen, améliorent les paramètres du syndrome métabolique, les acides gras saturés, enrichis en produits d'origine animale et en aliments transformés, ont des actions pro-inflammatoires et leur consommation est corrélée aux symptômes dépressifs chez l’humain. Ainsi, nous avons émis l'hypothèse que l'obésité induite par une diète riche en gras saturés, et non monoinsaturés, favorise l’expression de comportements anxieux et dépressifs chez la souris via des adaptations moléculaires au noyau accumbens. Afin de tester cette hypothèse, nous avons exposé des souris mâles et femelles à une diète riche en gras saturés ou monoinsaturés ou à une diète faible en gras et avons évalué le rôle de l'inflammation au noyau accumbens dans l'expression d'un phénotype anxiodépressif. Dans notre première étude, impliquant uniquement des souris mâles, nous avons constaté que, malgré une prise de poids et une adiposité similaires, seules les souris nourries avec une diète riche en gras saturés présentaient des altérations métaboliques et des comportements anxiodépressifs. De plus, ces effets étaient accompagnés d'une augmentation des niveaux de marqueurs inflammatoires dans le noyau accumbens et, par approche virale, l’inhibition spécifique de la voie pro-inflammatoire du facteur nucléaire kappa-b dans cette région était suffisante pour empêcher l'expression de comportements anxiodépressifs ainsi que de recherche compulsive de sucrose. Dans notre deuxième étude, des souris femelles ont été placées sur les mêmes 3 régimes et nous avons également observé un phénotype anxiodépressif spécifique à la diète riche en gras saturés. Contrairement aux mâles, l'inflammation n'était pas associée à l’expression de comportements anxiodépressifs. À la place, des niveaux d'œstrogènes circulants élevés et une expression diminuée du récepteur à l’estrogène bêta dans le noyau accumbens ont distingué les souris sous diète riche en gras saturés des autres. Dans notre troisième étude, nous avons induit l'obésité et des comportements anxiodépressifs chez des souris mâles en les exposant à la diète riche en gras saturés. Par une approche chimiogénétique, nous avons renversé le phénotype dépressif induit par la diète riche en gras saturés en activant les neurones du noyau accumbens exprimant le récepteur dopaminergique de type 1. De plus, nous avons mis en évidence des effets différentiels de ces neurones, en condition de diète riche en gras saturés, avec une hausse des comportements anxieux par cette même manipulation. Dans notre quatrième étude, nous évaluons le potentiel d'un nouveau co-agoniste glucagon-like peptide-1/dexaméthasone à réduire la motivation pour les aliments riches en gras et en sucre chez les souris mâles. Nous avons constaté que ce co-agoniste pouvait inhiber, de manière aiguë, la motivation à obtenir des récompenses alimentaires à la fois sous diète contrôle et suite au sevrage d’une diète riche en gras et en sucre. Le traitement prolongé avec ce composé chez des souris obèses a permis de réduire le poids corporel et l'apport alimentaire, sans favoriser de comportements anxiodépressifs ou de déficit cognitif. Dans l'ensemble, notre travail supporte le rôle du noyau accumbens dans la susceptibilité accrue à l'anxiété et à la dépression chez les personnes obèses. Nous démontrons que la composition du régime alimentaire en différents acides gras, et non seulement la teneur, influence les altérations métaboliques et de l'humeur en obésité. Nos données suggèrent que cette relation est gouvernée par des mécanismes moléculaires distincts en fonction du sexe. Enfin, ces études pourraient orienter le développement de nouvelles approches thérapeutiques traitant à la fois les composantes métaboliques et motivationnelles de l'obésité. / Obesity increases the odds for mood disorders such as depression and anxiety and, in turn, negative affect influences feeding behaviours. Part of the reward circuitry, the nucleus accumbens integrates dopaminergic signaling with cortical inputs and translates this information into goal-oriented behaviours. In rodents, high-fat feeding promotes dopaminergic adaptations in the nucleus accumbens and imaging studies reveal blunted recruitment of this brain region during palatable food consumption in human obesity. Alterations in nucleus accumbens dopamine signaling disrupt reward function and heavily contribute to the motivational deficits commonly observed in depression. Diet-induced obesity results from chronic overconsumption of energy-dense foods, such as those with a high fat content, yet distinct dietary fatty acids influence metabolic health and mood differently. While monounsaturated fatty acids, predominant in the Mediterranean diet, have overall benefits for features of the metabolic syndrome, saturated fatty acids, enriched in animal-derived products and processed foods, have pro-inflammatory actions and their consumption correlates with depressive symptoms. Thus, we hypothesized that obesity induced by a saturated, but not monounsaturated, high-fat diet promotes anxiety and depressive behaviours in mice via molecular adaptations in the nucleus accumbens. In order to test this hypothesis, we placed male and female mice on either a saturated or monounsaturated high-fat diet or a control low-fat diet and assessed the role of nucleus accumbens inflammation in mediating the expression of an anxiodepressive phenotype. In our first study, only involving male mice, we found that, despite similar weight gain and overall adiposity, only mice fed the saturated high-fat diet displayed metabolic impairments and anxiodepressive behaviours. In addition, these impairments were accompanied by enhanced levels of inflammatory markers in the nucleus accumbens and region-specific viral mediated inhibition of the pro-inflammatory nuclear factor kappa-b pathway was sufficient to prevent the expression of anxiodepressive behaviours as well as compulsive sucrose-seeking. In our second study, female mice were placed on the same 3 diets and we also observed an anxiodepressive phenotype specific to the saturated high-fat diet. In contrast to the males, inflammation was not associated to the increase in anxiodepressive behaviours. Instead, elevated circulating levels of estrogen and diminished expression of estrogen receptor beta in the nucleus accumbens distinguished mice on the saturated high-fat diet from the others. In our third study, we induced obesity and anxiodepressive behaviours in male mice by exposing them to the saturated high-fat diet. Via a chemogenetic approach, we blocked the depressive phenotype induced by saturated high-fat feeding by activating neurons of the nucleus accumbens expressing the type 1 dopamine receptor. In addition, we evidenced differential effects of these neurons, under conditions of saturated high-fat feeding, as anxiety behaviours were enhanced by this same manipulation. In our fourth study, we assess the potential of a novel glucagon-like peptide-1/dexamethasone co-agonist to reduce motivation for high-fat/high-sugar rewards in male mice. We found that this co-agonist could acutely inhibit operant response for palatable foods under both chow and withdrawal from high-fat/high-sucrose diet conditions. Prolonged treatment with this compound in diet-induced obese mice successfully reduced body weight and food intake, without promoting anxiodepressive behaviours as well as cognitive impairment. Overall, our work supports a role for the nucleus accumbens in the greater susceptibility to anxiety and depression in obese individuals. We demonstrate that diet composition in fatty acids, and not just fat content, influences metabolic and mood impairments in obesity. Our data suggests this relationship to be mediating by distinct molecular mechanisms in a sex-specific manner. Finally, these studies may orient the development of novel therapeutic approaches addressing both the metabolic and motivational components of obesity.