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Die Dissertation untersucht von Autorinnen (Louisa Johnson, Jane Loudon, Maria Theresa Earle, Gertrude Jekyll, Elizabeth von Arnim) verfasste Ratgeberliteratur zum Hausgarten für ein weibliches Lesepublikum, mit dem Anspruch an eine praktische Gartentätigkeit, im Zeitraum von 1839 bis 1900. Die Genderperspektive steht hieraus folgend im Mittelpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit. Der Fokus auf die bürgerliche Mittelklasse ergibt sich aus der Autorinnenperspektive und der angesprochenen Leserschaft. Die Behandlung des Gartens wird einer Analyse unterzogen, die nach der weiblichen Sicht auf den Garten und einem spezifisch weiblichen Selbstverständnis der garteninteressierten bzw. gärtnernden Frauen fragt. In ihrer Beschäftigung mit dem Garten leisten die Frauen einen Beitrag zur Konzeption von männlich und weiblich, zur Bewertung von Geschlechternormen und deren Verhandlung. Das Schreiben und Lesen über den Garten sowie hieraus resultierende Handlungen waren mit der Konstruktion weiblicher Identität verknüpft. In ihrer befreienden Konzeption des Gartens heben sich diese Frauenstimmen zu Weiblichkeitsvorstellungen von anderen gesellschaftlichen zugeschriebenen Wirkungsbereichen ab. An die bürgerliche Frau herangetragene Rollenerwartungen werden in den Werken weder affirmativ bestätigt noch offen subversiv hinterfragt. Es handelt sich vielmehr um ein subtiles Unterlaufen durch das Anbieten von Handlungsfeldern, die dem Wunsch nach Selbstverwirklichung und Selbstbestimmung entgegen kamen. Im Garten als vermeintlich kleinem, hausnah-restriktivem Kontext nehmen die Frauen neue Rollen an und variieren diese. Der Beschäftigung mit dem Garten kommt daher ein protofeministischer Charakter vor dem Einsetzen der Ersten Frauenbewegung zu, so dass von einem Gartenfeminismus als Instrument zur weiblichen Bewusstwerdung gesprochen werden kann. / The thesis takes a close look at gardening literature by several women writer’s (Louisa Johnson, Jane Loudon, Maria Theresa Earle, Gertrude Jekyll, Elizabeth von Arnim) in the Victorian period, focusing on practical gardening activities. Central to its theme is its gender perspective within the garden context, predominantly in the middle classes. The garden is analysed in various contexts focusing on a specific female view on gardening as seen in the texts and a growing female self-awareness that results from their involvement with the garden. In making the garden their subject, these writers actively construct notions of male and female. Writing and reading about the garden and the resulting practices are linked to the construction of a female identity and ultimately open up gender roles. The liberating construction of the garden within the texts differs from the conception of other socially accepted areas of female involvement in the period of examination. Received gender roles are neither overtly affirmed nor subversively challenged in the texts. Their approach is more of a subtle reconstruction by offering a new and wider range of activities that acknowledge a female desire for self-determination and fulfilment. In the garden as an allegedly small and restrictive site close to the home, women are able to diversify given stereotypes and take on new roles. Gardening as a leisure or professional occupation therefore holds proto-feminist implications even before the beginning of the First Women’s Movement, so that we can speak of a garden feminism instrumental to a negotiation of female gender roles.

This thesis sheds light on Dollie Radford as one of the talented women writers whose work is still insufficiently acknowledged by contemporary studies because of the lack of extant information about her life. LeeAnne Richardson, Ruth Livesey, and Emily Harrington are three of only a handful of scholars who have discussed in any detail Radford's role as a poet, socialist, and activist who was surrounded by key figures in the history of English literature and culture, such as William Morris, Oscar Wilde, Eleanor Marx, and Olive Schreiner. Despite being identified by Victorian reviewers as a “domestic” woman poet, all contemporary scholars who have hitherto considered Radford pinpoint her “radical” thoughts and engagement with the New Woman. Building on arguments by Radford's contemporary scholars, my argument highlights Radford's role as a Victorian feminist who sought, through her poetry, to challenge patriarchal attitudes and defy social conventions which imprisoned women of her generation. While the first two chapters of this thesis provide a contextual background of women's rights and women's poetry in the Victorian era, the four remaining chapters explore how Radford's personal conflict as an ignored married woman and unsupported writer might have influenced her empathetic portrayal of marginalised figures, such as prostitutes, the working classes, women writers, and homosexuals. Simultaneously, the chapters highlight the subversive meanings obscured by Radford's use of evocative and aesthetic language. The majority of the poems, letters, and diary entries included here are unpublished and have not yet been considered by contemporary critics. Thus, this research adds to the existing body of knowledge, offering a new approach to Radford's life and poetry in relation to aspects concerning women in Victorian and Edwardian England. By continuously interrogating Radford's choice of metaphors and images in contrast with those depicted by other Victorian poets, I aim to establish Radford as a significant fin-se-siècle woman poet whose poetry embraces a literary tradition which questions negative gendered attitudes biased against passionate women writers.

Este trabalho consiste de uma tradução versificada de A Batalha de Maldon, poema anglo-saxão no metro tradicional, composto no século X-XI a respeito da batalha homônima entre dinamarqueses e anglo-saxões. Seu pressuposto fundamental é um estudo das abordagens de tradução aplicáveis à poesia germânica antiga para a produção de uma versão anotada em português, com a qual se procura reconstituir as características do poema antigo. Esta abordagem leva aos argumentos finais acerca desta possibilidade, em especial no que diz respeito à aliteração em português. / This work consists in a verse translation from the Anglo-saxon of The Battle of Maldon, old English poem written between the 10th and 11th centuries about the battle between Danes and Saxons. The main goal is the study of different translation theories which are related to the old Germanic poetic tradition as a mean to provide a Portuguese language annotated version where the poem\'s traits are reconstructed. This procedure leads to the final argument, on the possibility of achieving alliteration in Portuguese.

The prose translation of the fifty first psalms in the Paris Psalter is quite unique as an early medieval scriptural translation (O’Neill 2016 p. x). There have been several studies made on the Paris Psalter recently, most notably by Patrick O’Neill. One focus of several of these studies has been whether or not the Prose translation is connected to Alfred the Great. However, there is still much left in this translation that has not yet been studied. Something that can be noticed when studying the prose psalms is that throughout the translation the translator made several additions and changes to the psalms. There are several different kinds of additions in the prose psalms, the most common of these is the þæt ys/þæt synt (‘that is’/‘those are’) type. This study focuses on these additions, and it will be suggested that the translator has made additions and changes to the psalms to describe metaphors and concepts that an Anglo-Saxon reader might not have been able to understand without these additions.

L’existence de noms vieil-anglais au genre variable a été signalée encore à la fin du 19e siècle. Alors que le nombre de noms assignés à plusieurs genres dans les dictionnaires du vieil-anglais est très élevé, il n’existe presque aucune étude approfondie du phénomène. La présente thèse tente de répondre à des questions de ce que l'on désigne comme les noms au genre variable, comment ces noms se distinguent d’autres types de fluctuation dans les documents en vieil-anglais et de ce qui se trouve à l’origine de la variation en genre.Après avoir défini la notion de l’accord et son expression dans les marqueurs, on propose une étude détaillée de toutes les occurrences de trente-six emprunts faits au latin et au vieux-norrois d’une part, et de soixante-dix-huit noms indigènes d’autre part, tous assignés à plusieurs genres dans les dictionnaires. Constatant des évolutions parfois importantes dans l’emploi des marqueurs en discours, on cherche à déterminer s’ils interviennent dans la décision des lexicographes ou s’ils reflètent une variabilité interne aux noms étudiés. La variation se présente ainsi sous deux angles et s’explique à travers deux notions, celle du désaccord, où tout lien entre le nom-contrôleur et les cibles d’accord est rompu, et celle de la variabilité, qui soutient le lien d’accord sur le plan cognitif et permet la transition d’un genre à l’autre selon le choix de l’énonciateur. / The existence of nouns of variable genre in Old English was brought to the linguistic community’s attention at the end of the 19th century. Despite the rather high number of nouns assigned to several genders in dictionaries dealing with Old English, to date there has been no substantial study of the phenomenon. This thesis is a usage-based study that explores the notion of nouns of variable gender by distinguishing them from other types of gender-variation in Old English texts. It also explores in detail the factors behind various grammatical gender assignments.It departs from the notion of agreement and its expression in gender-sensitive markers. A corpus of a hundred and fourteen nouns assigned to several genders in the dictionaries – seventy-eight native and thirty-six borrowed from Latin and Old Norse – are analysed in context in order to identify the various factors that influence the lexicographers’ decision-making. Some important developments in the usage of the formerly gender-sensitive markers in the discourse might have influenced the latter to a certain degree. Or, they might be a reflection of variability as an internal feature of the nouns analysed. This study deals with the notion of variation as a cover-term for disagreement, which reflects the discontinuity of the link between a controller and its agreement targets, and, on the other hand, for variability, maintaining the agreement on the cognitive level and allowing the transition from one gender to the other depending on the choice of the speaker.

This is a small quantitative study with focus on colloquial English words with an Old Norse origin. The essay aims to study the history of the Viking invasion and its impact on the English language and to answer the question to what extent Old Norse has influenced modern English vocabulary. Also, the quantitative study aims to answer how well elderly British people are familiar with colloquial English words with Old Norse origins and their denotative meaning and also whether there is a difference in knowledge depending on where in Britain one lives. A quantitative questionnaire was designed to research elderly British people’s knowledge of fifteen different colloquial words with Old Norse origins and to see whether the respondents recognized the words and if they knew the words. This questionnaire was then sent to managers working for AgeUK. The managers in their turn distributed the questionnaire to elderly people in their municipality. The results indicate that the elderly people living in parts of Britain that were part of the Danelaw have a better understanding of the words researched. The research has also shown that different spellings of the words exist and that the denotative meaning of the words might differ depending on from where in Britain one originates.

4 ABSTRACT This thesis provides a description of the incipient grammaticalization of like between the end of the Old English period and the beginning of the Middle English period. During the examined time period, like was gradually losing the attributes that defined its categorial status as an adjective and began to function as the head of a prepositional phrase. Since the process of grammaticalization is inherently gradual, both the adjectival and the prepositional like were found to coexist as a result of the process of layering. Therefore, 10 parameters were established to determine which instances of like were more adjective-like and which were more preposition- like. The empirical part is based on the analysis of the 371 instances of the OE variants of like found in The York-Toronto-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Old English Prose (YCOE) and the 232 instances of the ME variants of like found in The Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Middle English, second edition (PPCME2). The sample is examined from the morphological as well as the syntactic point of view. Compared to the YCOE corpus, the findings in the PPCME2 corpus revealed a more advanced stage of grammaticalization. While some of the changes are not specific to like and affected other adjectives as well (the loss of inflectional endings, the fixed...

Background: Grammars of Old English held at least until the 1960s that word orderin Anglo-Saxon texts was essentially “free”, that is, determined entirely or primarily by stylistic choice rather than syntactic rules.  Although prose word order has been shown to be regular in several models, the same cannot be said of poetry.  This study uses Nils-Lennart Johannesson’s Old English syntax model, operating within the Government and Binding framework, to establish whether the phrase structure of The Wanderer can fit into this model as it stands, and if not, whether a reasonably small number of additional parameters can be established in order to establish whether “free” word order is in evidence, or whether the word order of Old English poetry is regular in the same way as prose. Results: A full clause analysis showed that the majority of the clauses fit Johannesson’s model.  For those which did not, two modifications are recommended: non-compulsory movement of main verbs in main clauses from I to C; and the splitting and rightwards extraposition of the second part of coordinated NPs in which the first coordinated element is “light” and the second “heavy”.  This leaves a small number of clauses featuring constructions which do not occur frequently enough in the text to allow rules to be induced to explain them.  These must therefore be deemed irregular.  Conclusions:  While much of The Wanderer has been shown to be syntactically regular, some constructions could not be fitted into the existing model without the introduction of special parameters to excuse them.  This paper is intended as a pilot study for a larger project which will incorporate the other poems in the heroic tradition with the hope of inducing a complete syntax for them.  One part of that investigation will be to include these infrequent constructions in The Wanderer, to find comparable constructions in other poems and categorise them within the corpus.

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