Au cours du vieillissement normal et du vieillissement pathologique de type Alzheimer, des altérations olfactives surviennent. Très précoces dans la maladie d'Alzheimer, ces troubles pourraient être signe du développement de la maladie, bien avant l'apparition des signes de déclin cognitif. Il nous paraissait donc important de caractériser et de différencier de manière précise les troubles olfactifs associés au vieillissement normal de ceux associés au vieillissement pathologique et leurs corrélats cellulaires. Notre première étude a pour objectif de clarifier le vieillissement de la fonction olfactive et sa plasticité chez le rongeur. Dans ce travail, le vieillissement apparaît comme un processus complexe, qui n'est pas une simple dégradation générale de la fonction olfactive, mais un processus qui touche de manière hétérogène les différents aspects de la perception olfactive, et dont le signe le plus marquant semble être la perte de plasticité des performances olfactives, de la neurogenèse et du système noradrénergique en réponse à une stimulation. Nous montrons que la mémoire olfactive et sa modulation par l'enrichissement de l'environnement olfactif est plus sensible au vieillissement normal que la discrimination olfactive. Le fonctionnement basal (discrimination facile et mémoire à très court terme) persiste, bien que la neurogenèse soit altérée de manière drastique et cela malgré le rôle majeur des néo neurones pour la fonction olfactive chez l'animal jeune. Nos données mettent également en évidence une altération biphasique de la neurogenèse (réduction de prolifération, puis chez les animaux sénescents, une altération de la différenciation et de la survie des néo-neurones), et une réponse plastique du système noradrénergique qui persiste à âge moyen, alors que la neurogenèse ne réponds déjà plus à l'enrichissement olfactif. Ce travail apporte ainsi les bases nécessaires pour une comparaison des altérations olfactives liées à l'âge avec celles présentes dans la MA. Notre seconde étude nous a permis de confirmer l'existence de déficits olfactifs précoces chez le modèle murin APP/PS1 de maladie d'Alzheimer, ainsi que l'implication du système noradrénergique dans ces altérations. Induite par un traitement chronique au DSP4, la déplétion noradrénergique aggrave le phénotype amyloïde dans le BO, et accentue sévèrement les troubles olfactifs. Ces données contribuent à valider l'utilisation de modèle olfactif pour l'étude des altérations précoces observées dans la maladie d'Alzheimer, en combinant la déplétion noradrénergique pour modéliser les altérations observées dans la maladie humaine, et étudier les mécanismes physiopathologiques survenant dans la MA. / During normal aging and pathological aging like Alzheimer's disease appear olfactory deficits. These deficits occur very early in Alzheimer's disease and could be among the first signs of the disease. Thus, the definition, comparison of olfactory trouble appearing in normal aging versus Alzheimer's disease and their cellular correlates is a crucial step toward comprehension of the disease. The first study was aimed at clarifying olfactory function in aging and it's plasticity in normal mice. Aging appears as a very complex process, touching heterogenatly olfactory components. The major sign of aging is the lack of plasticity of olfactory performances, neurogenic processes and noradrenergic system in response to an olfactory enrichment. Our datas show that olfactory memory and it's modulation by olfactory enrichment is more sensible to aging than olfactory discrimination. Despite the strong impairment of neurogenesis in aging, and regardless to it's major role in olfactory processes in young animals, basal olfactory performances (easy discrimination and very short term memory) remains intact in aged animals. We also show that olfactory neurogenesis is impaired in a biphasic way during aging (first, reduction of proliferation, and then in senescent mice, impairment of differentiation and survival in the olfactory bulb). Noradrenergic system plasticity persists in middle aged animals, contrarily to neurogenesis which does not respond to olfactory enrichment. Thus, this work gives us the background necessary to compare olfactory deficits in normal and pathological aging. Our second study confirms that olfactory troubles occurs early in APP/PS1 mice, our Alzheimer's disease model, and confirms the implication of noradrenergic deficits. A chronic depletion in noradrenalin produced by treatments with DSP4 aggravates amyloïd deposition and olfactory deficits in our mice. These datas provide a strong support to the use of olfactory modality to study early signs of the disease, and to combine noradrenergic depletion to reproduce clinical and physiopatholocical signs of Alzheimer's disease in human.

Chez les mamifères terrestres, l’échantillonnage des odeurs (flairage) est inextricablement lié à la respiration. Le flairage contraint à la fois le décours temporel et l’intensité de l’input olfactif. Or le flaireage est un acte dynamique, il peut varier aussi bien en fréquence qu’en débit. Dans une 1ère partie de mon travail de thèse, nous avoins souhaité caractériser l’impact des variations de fréquence et de débit respiratiore sur l’activité du bulbe olfactif. Pour cela, nous avons mis au point une méthode de double trachéotomie chez le rat anesthésié nous permettant de contrôler précisément les flux d’air ans la cavité nasale. En paralèlle, nous avons enregistrer l’acitivité unitaire et de réseau du bulbe olfactif. Nous montrons que les variations de flairage modulent la représentation neuronale bulbaire des odeurs en modifiant à la fois l’activité de décharge des cellules principales et l’occurence des oscillaations du potentiel de champ local. Dans une 2e partie de ma thèse, nous avons souhaitécomprendre quel pouvait être le rôle du flairage chez un animal qui se comporte. Nous avons posé l’hypothèse qu’un animal pouvait adapter sa façon de flaireer en fonction de la qualité des molécules odorantes. Pour tester cette hypothèse, nous avons mis au point un système d’enregeistrement non invasif de la respiration couplé à une tâche de discrimination olfactive chez le rat. Nous montrons non seulement que les animaux peuvent adapter leur flairage en fonction des molécules odorantes masi également en focntion du contexte dans lequel l’odeur est présentée. L’ensemble de ces résultats s’intègre donc dans la problématique plus générale de l’intégration sensori-motrice. / In terrestrial mammals, an inextricable link between olfaction and respiration exists due to the periodic sampling of odorant molecules by inhalation. The features of sniffing (or breathing) constrain both the timing and the intensity of the input to the olfactory structures. But rather than being fixed, sniffing in the bahavingrodent is highly dynamic and varies both in frequency and flow rate. During the firs stage of my PhD, I asked to what extent sniffing parameters (frequency and flow rate) variations could affect the olfactory bulb activity. To address this question, I developped a double tracheotomy protocol in anesthetized rats to precisely control and modify the nasal airflow. In parallel, I recorded oldfactory bulbactivities, single-unit activity and local field potentials. We showed that, at the olfactory bulb level, the neutral representation of an odor is highly modified by sampling variations. In fact both the mitral/tufted cell discharge patterns and local field potentials oscilliations were affected by sniffing variations. In the second stage, we wanted to understand the role of sniffing variations in behaving animals. We hypothesized tha t an animal could adapt its sniffing strategy relative to the quality of the odorant molecules. To test this hypothesis, we developped a tool to record sniffing in a non invasive way, and combined it to an olfactory discrimination task in the rat. We showed that animals not only adapted their sniffing relative to the odorant quality but also to the odorant context. Taken together, these results fit into the broader context of sensory-motor integration.

O sistema da procineticina desempenha um papel importante na migração dos neurônios secretores de GnRH e na neurogênese do bulbo olfatório. Camundongos com ablação dos genes que codificam a procineticina 2 (PROK2) e seu receptor (PROKR2) apresentaram fenótipos semelhantes ao da síndrome de Kallmann descrita em humanos. Mutações inativadoras nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 foram identificadas em pacientes com hipogonadismo hipogonadotrófico isolado. Com base nestes achados, investigamos a presença de alterações estruturais nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 em 107 pacientes brasileiros (63 com síndrome de Kallmann e 47 com hipogonadismo hipogonadotrófico isolado normósmico). Cem indivíduos brasileiros que relataram desenvolvimento puberal normal foram utilizados como grupo controle. As regiões codificadoras dos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 foram amplificadas utilizando-se oligonucleotídeos intrônicos específicos, seguida de purificação enzimática e sequenciamento automático. Duas mutações no gene PROK2 foram identificadas: a mutação p.G100fsX121 em homozigose presente em dois irmãos com síndrome de Kallmann; e a mutação p.I55fsX56 em heterozigose identiificada em um paciente com HHIn. Quatro mutações foram identificadas no gene PROKR2 (p.R80C, p.Y140X, p.L173R e p.R268C) em cinco pacientes com síndrome de Kallmann e um paciente com HHIn. Essas mutações não foram encontradas no grupo controle. As mutações do tipo missense, p.R80C, p.L173R e p.R268C foram identificadas em heterozigose. Mutações nos genes FGFR1, GnRHR, KiSS-1 e GPR54 foram excluídas nesses pacientes. O paciente portador da mutação p.R268C do PROKR2 apresentou deleção dos exons 1 e 2 do gene KAL1. Adicionalmente, as mutações p.R80C e p.R268C foram identificadas em heterozigose em parentes de primeiro grau assintomáticos dos casos índices. A nova mutação p.Y140X do PROKR2, única alteração em homozigose, foi identificada em um paciente com micropênis, criptorquidia bilateral, anosmia e palato ogival. Os pais deste paciente eram portadores da mutação p.Y140X em heterozigose e relataram desenvolvimento puberal normal e ausência de anormalidades olfatórias. Estudos in vitro da nova mutação p.R80C localizada na primeira alça intracelular demonstraram que o acúmulo de fofatidil-inositol (IP), assim como a ativação da via da MAPK foram significativamente afetadas em células transfectadas com o receptor mutado em relação ao receptor selvagem, indicando que a mutação p.R80C determina uma menor atividade do receptor. Avaliação da expressão por Western blot mostrou uma diminuição na expressão do receptor mutado R80C e uma maior expressão de receptores imaturos. Esses achados sugeriram o papel crítico da arginina localizada na posição 80 na atividade normal do receptor. Em conclusão, expandimos o repertório de mutações deletérias nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 em pacientes com hipogonadismo hipogonadotrófico isolado. A haploinsuficiência do PROKR2 não foi suficiente para causar síndrome de Kallmann ou HHIn, entretanto mutações inativadoras em homozigose nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 foram responsáveis pelo fenótipo reprodutivo e olfatório anormal, em concordância com os estudos prévios de ablação gênica em modelos animais. Arginina localizada na posição 80 do PROKR2 desempenha um papel crucial na adequada maturação do receptor / Physiological activation of the prokineticin pathway has a critical role in olfactory bulb morphogenesis and GnRH secretion. Knock-out mice for genes that encode prokineticin 2 (PROK2) and the prokineticin receptor 2 (PROKR2) exhibited a phenotype similar to the Kallmann syndrome (KS). Inactivating mutations in PROK2 and PROKR2 have been identified in patients with isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Based on these findings, we investigated the presence of inactivating mutations of the genes PROK2 and PROKR2 in Brazilian patients with isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism associated or not with olfactory abnormalities and performed in vitro studies of the new identified mutations. We studied 107 patients with HH (63 with Kallmann syndrome and 44 with normosmic HH) and 100 control individuals. The coding regions of PROK2 and PROKR2 were amplified by polymerase chain reaction followed by enzymatic purification and direct automatic sequencing. In PROK2, two known frameshift mutations were identified. Two brothers with Kallmann syndrome harbored the homozygous p.G100fsX121 mutation, whereas one male with normosmic HH harbored the heterozygous p.I55fsX56 mutation. In PROKR2, four distinct mutations (p.R80C, p.Y140X, p.L173R and p.R268C) were identified in five patients with Kallmann syndrome and in one patient with normosmic HH. These mutations were not found in the control group. The p.R80C and p.R268C missense mutations were identified in heterozygous state in the HH patients and in their asymptomatic first-degree relatives. The p.L173R was also identified in heterozygous state. In addition, no mutations of FGFR1, GnRHR, KiSS-1 or GPR54 were identified in these patients. The patient with the PROKR2 mutation p.R268C also has a deletion of the exon 1 and 2 in the gene KAL1. Notably, the new nonsense mutation (p.Y140X) was identified in homozygous state in an anosmic boy with micropenis, bilateral cryptorchidism and high-arched palate. His asymptomatic parents were heterozygous for this severe defect. In vitro studies of the new mutation, p.R80C, were performed in order to access the mechanism by which this mutation could affect the activity of the PROKR2. In vitro studies showed that the amount of fofatidil-inositol (PI) and the activation of MAPK were significantly lower in cells transfected with the R80C mutant receptor than in cells transfected with the wild receptor, indicating that this variant is a loss-of-function mutation. Binding studies and Western blot showed a reduction in the expression levels of the receptor in the plasma membrane and in whole cell, respectively. Additionally, Western blot analysis of R80C PROKR2 revealed an additional smaller molecular weight band that represents the presence of immature unglycosylated receptors. The arginine 80 in ICL1 is important for post-translational processing of PROKR2. In conclusion, we expanded the repertoire of PROK2 and PROKR2 mutations in patients with HH and showed that PROKR2 haploinsufficiency is not sufficient to cause Kallmann syndrome or normosmic HH, whereas homozygous loss-of-function mutations either in PROK2 or PROKR2 are sufficient to cause disease phenotype, in accordance with the Prokr2 and Prok2 knockout mouse models. In vitro studies suggested that the arginine located at position 80 of the receptor seems to play an important role in the receptor function

O presente trabalho descreve um programa de computador em linguagem Java que reproduz o modelo compartimental reduzido de célula mitral do bulbo olfativo construído por Davison, Feng e Brown (Brain Res. Bull. 51:393-399,2000), como uma simplificação do modelo detalhado de Bhalla e Bower (J. Neurophysiol., 69:1948-1965, 1993). O modelo reduzido considera a célula mitral como composta por quatro compartimentos, modelados conforme a metodologia de HODGKIN e HUXLEY. Por seu baixo custo computacional, o modelo reduzido permite a construção de modelos de rede de grande porte para o bulbo olfativo. A implementação computacional feita em Java apresenta grande similaridade com a original, indicando uma robustez do modelo com relação a versões em plataformas distintas. / This work describes a computer program written in Java, which reproduces the reduced compartimental model of the mitral cell of the olfactory bulb constructed by Davison, Feng and Brown (Brain Res. Bull. 51:393-399,2000), as a simplified version of the detailed model of Bhalla and Bower (J. Neurophysiol., 69:1948-1965, 1993). The reduced model considers the mitral cell as composed of four compartiments modeled according to the Hodgkin-Huxley formalism. Due to its low computational cost, the reduced model allows the construction of large-scale network models of the olfactory bulb. The computer implementation made in Java shows great similarity with the original, indicating that the model is robust with respect to implementations in different platforms.

Les cellules souches neurales (CSNs) de la zone sous-ventriculaire (ZSV) présentent une activité germinale intense tout au long de la vie d'un individu. Les CSNs postnatales sont régionalisées en microdomaines exprimant des facteurs de transcription spécifiques et générant des sous-types neuronaux distincts dans le bulbe olfactif (BO). Les interneurones calrétinine (CalR+) représentent la plus grande population d'interneurones périglomérulaires (PG) du BO produits après la naissance. Cependant, contrairement à d'autres, il existe peu d'informations concernant leur origine, leur diversité et leur fonction dans le BO, ainsi que les facteurs de transcription impliqués dans leur génération. Des études antérieures ont mis en évidence que les interneurones CalR + PG sont générés à la fois par les microdomaines médial et dorsal de la ZSV, et ont suggéré que le facteur de transcription Sp8 serait impliqué dans leur génération. Ce travail de thèse a eu pour objectif : 1) d'affiner les approches actuelles afin de manipuler l'expression génique dans les CSNs de la ZSV postnatale d'une manière contrôlée temporellement, 2) d'explorer l'origine et la fonction des interneurones CalR + périglomérulaires, 3) d'étudier le rôle du facteur de transcription Sp8 dans le codage transcriptionnel de la spécification des interneurones CalR + périglomérulaires ainsi que leur maturation. Ainsi, une approche d'électroporation postnatale classique a été affinée afin de pouvoir manipuler l'expression des gènes dans les CSNs de la ZSV et ainsi permettre de cartographier le devenir à long terme de la progénie des CSNs et de manipuler génétiquement ces CSNs à une étape précise de leur différentiation. Le perfectionnement de cette approche a permis d'identifier deux sous-populations d'interneurones CalR + présentant des origines spatiales et temporelles différentes après la naissance, ainsi que d'explorer les implications fonctionnelles et morphologiques de cette diversité. Ainsi, une fraction importante et non décrite d'interneurones CalR + PG présente des propriétés de neurones immatures (c'est-à-dire qu'elle reçoit peu d'entrées synaptiques et est faiblement excitable), remettant en question leur rôle dans le traitement de l'information olfactive. Enfin, des manipulations génétiques du facteur de transcription Sp8 à divers stades de la différenciation des interneurones CalR+ ont mis en évidence son rôle dans la survie à long terme des interneurones CalR + PG matures, tout en excluant un rôle dans leur spécification précoce. Ces résultats amène ainsi un éclairage nouveau sur l'origine, la diversité et le codage transcriptionnel des interneurones CalR + PG et appellent à une caractérisation plus précise de leur rôle dans le traitement de l'information olfactive / The subventricular zone (SVZ) is a brain region that shows intense germinal activity throughout postnatal life. The postnatal SVZ is subdivided in microdomains containing neural stem cells (NSCs) that express defined transcription factors and generate distinct neuronal subtypes in the olfactory bulb (OB). Calretinin-expressing (CalR+) interneurons represent the largest population of OB periglomerular interneurons produced after birth. Yet, in contrast to others, limited information exists regarding their origin, diversity and function in the OB, as well as the transcription factors that guide their generation. Previous studies highlighted that CalR+ PG interneurons are generated by both the medial and dorsal SVZ microdomains, and suggested that the transcription factor Sp8 is involved in their generation.This work aimed at 1) refining current approaches for manipulating gene expression in postnatal SVZ NSCs in a temporally controlled manner, 2) exploring the origin and the function of CalR+ periglomerular neurons, 3) investigating the role of Sp8 in the transcriptional coding of CalR+ periglomerular interneurons specification and maturation.Refinement of the classical electroporation approach allowed the long-term fate mapping and timely-controlled genetic manipulation of NSCs of the SVZ. Using this refined approach allowed identifying two subpopulations of CalR+ interneurons that show different spatial and temporal origins after birth, as well as to explore the functional and morphological correlates of this diversity. A large and previously non-described fraction of CalR+ periglomerular interneurons exhibits properties of immature neurons (i.e. little synaptic inputs and weak excitability), questioning their role in olfactory processing. Finally, genetic manipulations of the transcription factor Sp8 at different stages during CalR+ interneuron differentiation highlighted its role in the long-term survival of mature CalR+ periglomerular interneurons, while excluding a role in their early specification. Altogether these results shed new lights on the origin, diversity and transcriptional coding of CalR+ periglomerular i nterneurons and call for a characterization of their role in olfactory processing

Chemical sensing is believed to be the oldest sensory ability. The chemical senses, olfaction and gustation, developed to detect and analyze information in the form of air- or waterborne chemicals, to find food and mates, and to avoid danger. The organization of the olfactory system follows the same principles in almost all living animals, insects as well as mammals. Likely, the similarities are due to parallel evolution – the same type of organisation seems to have arisen more than once. Therefore, the olfactory system is often assumed to be close to optimally designed for its tasks.Paradoxically, the workings of the olfactory system are not yet well known,although several milestone discoveries have been made during the last decades. The most well-known is probably the disovery of the olfactory receptor gene family,announced in 1991 by Linda Buck and Richard Axel. For this and subsequent work, they were awarded a Nobel Prize Award in 2004. This achievement has been of immense value for both experimentalists and theorists, and forms the basis of the current understanding of olfaction. The olfactory system has long been a focus for scientific interest within several fields, both experimental and theoretical, and it has often been used asa model system. And ever since the field of computational neuroscience was founded, the functions of the olfactory system have been investigated through computational modelling. In this thesis, I present several approaches to biologically realistic computational models of parts of the olfactory system, with an emphasis on the earlier stages of the vertebrate olfactory system – olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) and the olfactory bulb (OB). I have investigated the behaviour of the enzyme CaMKII, which is known to be critical for olfactory adaptation (suppression of constant odour stimuli) in the ORN, using a biochemical model. By constructing several OB models of different size, I have shown that the size of the OB network has an impact on its ability to process noisy information. Taking into account the reported variability of geometrical, electrical and receptor-dependent neuronal characteristics, I have been able to model the frequency response of a population of ORNs. I have used this model to find the key properties that govern most of the ORN population’s response, and investigated some of the possible implications of these key properties in subsequent studies of the ORN population and the OB – what we call the fuzzy concentration coding hypothesis. / Detektion av kemiska ämnen anses allmänt vara den äldsta sensoriska förmågan. De kemiska sinnena, lukt och smak, utvecklades för att upptäcka och analysera kemisk information i form av luft- eller vattenburna ämnen, för att hitta mat och partners, och för att undvika fara. Luktsystemet är organiserat efter samma principer hos nästan alla djurarter, insekter såväl som däggdjur. Troligen beror likheterna på parallell evolution – samma organisation verkar ha uppstått mer än en gång. Därför antas det ofta att luktsystemet är nära optimalt anpassat för sina arbetsuppgifter.Paradoxalt nog är luktsystemets arbetsprinciper ännu inte väl kända, även om flera banbrytande framsteg gjorts de senaste decennierna. Det mest välkända är nog upptäckten av genfamiljen av luktreceptorer, som tillkännagavs 1991 av Linda Buck och Rikard Axel. För detta och efterföljande arbete belönades de med Nobelpriset år 2004. Upptäckten har varit mycket värdefull för både experimentalister och teoretiker, och är grunden för vår nuvarande förståelse av luktsystemet. Luktsystemet har länge varit ett fokus för vetenskapligt intresse inom flera fält, experimentella såväl som teoretiska, och har ofta använts som ett modellsystem. Och ända sedan fältet beräkningsneurobiologi grundades har luktsystemet undersökts genom datormodellering. I denna avhandling presenterar jag flera ansatser till biologiskt realistiskaberäkningsmodeller av luktsystemet, med tonvikt på de tidigare delarna av ryggradsdjurens luktsystem – luktreceptorceller och luktbulben. Jag har undersökt beteendet hos enzymet CaMKII, som anses vara kritiskt viktigt för adaptation (undertryckning av ständigt närvarande luktstimuli) i luktsystemet, i en biokemisk modell. Genom att konstruera flera olika stora modeller av luktbulben har jag visat att storleken på luktbulbens cellnätverk påverkar dess förmåga att behandla brusig information. Genom att ta hänsyn till nervcellernas rapporterade variationer i geometriska, elektriska och receptor-beroende karaktärsdrag har jag lyckats modellera svarsfrekvenserna från en population av luktreceptorceller. Jag har använt denna modell för att hitta de nyckelprinciper som styr huvuddelen av luktreceptorneuron-populationens svar, ochundersökt några av de tänkbara konsekvenserna av dessa nyckelprinciper i efterföljande studier av luktreceptorneuron-populationen och luktbulben – det vi kallar ”fuzzy concentration coding”-hypotesen. / QC20100723

No description available.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå : Univ., 2007. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

O presente trabalho descreve um programa de computador em linguagem Java que reproduz o modelo compartimental reduzido de célula mitral do bulbo olfativo construído por Davison, Feng e Brown (Brain Res. Bull. 51:393-399,2000), como uma simplificação do modelo detalhado de Bhalla e Bower (J. Neurophysiol., 69:1948-1965, 1993). O modelo reduzido considera a célula mitral como composta por quatro compartimentos, modelados conforme a metodologia de HODGKIN e HUXLEY. Por seu baixo custo computacional, o modelo reduzido permite a construção de modelos de rede de grande porte para o bulbo olfativo. A implementação computacional feita em Java apresenta grande similaridade com a original, indicando uma robustez do modelo com relação a versões em plataformas distintas. / This work describes a computer program written in Java, which reproduces the reduced compartimental model of the mitral cell of the olfactory bulb constructed by Davison, Feng and Brown (Brain Res. Bull. 51:393-399,2000), as a simplified version of the detailed model of Bhalla and Bower (J. Neurophysiol., 69:1948-1965, 1993). The reduced model considers the mitral cell as composed of four compartiments modeled according to the Hodgkin-Huxley formalism. Due to its low computational cost, the reduced model allows the construction of large-scale network models of the olfactory bulb. The computer implementation made in Java shows great similarity with the original, indicating that the model is robust with respect to implementations in different platforms.

O sistema da procineticina desempenha um papel importante na migração dos neurônios secretores de GnRH e na neurogênese do bulbo olfatório. Camundongos com ablação dos genes que codificam a procineticina 2 (PROK2) e seu receptor (PROKR2) apresentaram fenótipos semelhantes ao da síndrome de Kallmann descrita em humanos. Mutações inativadoras nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 foram identificadas em pacientes com hipogonadismo hipogonadotrófico isolado. Com base nestes achados, investigamos a presença de alterações estruturais nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 em 107 pacientes brasileiros (63 com síndrome de Kallmann e 47 com hipogonadismo hipogonadotrófico isolado normósmico). Cem indivíduos brasileiros que relataram desenvolvimento puberal normal foram utilizados como grupo controle. As regiões codificadoras dos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 foram amplificadas utilizando-se oligonucleotídeos intrônicos específicos, seguida de purificação enzimática e sequenciamento automático. Duas mutações no gene PROK2 foram identificadas: a mutação p.G100fsX121 em homozigose presente em dois irmãos com síndrome de Kallmann; e a mutação p.I55fsX56 em heterozigose identiificada em um paciente com HHIn. Quatro mutações foram identificadas no gene PROKR2 (p.R80C, p.Y140X, p.L173R e p.R268C) em cinco pacientes com síndrome de Kallmann e um paciente com HHIn. Essas mutações não foram encontradas no grupo controle. As mutações do tipo missense, p.R80C, p.L173R e p.R268C foram identificadas em heterozigose. Mutações nos genes FGFR1, GnRHR, KiSS-1 e GPR54 foram excluídas nesses pacientes. O paciente portador da mutação p.R268C do PROKR2 apresentou deleção dos exons 1 e 2 do gene KAL1. Adicionalmente, as mutações p.R80C e p.R268C foram identificadas em heterozigose em parentes de primeiro grau assintomáticos dos casos índices. A nova mutação p.Y140X do PROKR2, única alteração em homozigose, foi identificada em um paciente com micropênis, criptorquidia bilateral, anosmia e palato ogival. Os pais deste paciente eram portadores da mutação p.Y140X em heterozigose e relataram desenvolvimento puberal normal e ausência de anormalidades olfatórias. Estudos in vitro da nova mutação p.R80C localizada na primeira alça intracelular demonstraram que o acúmulo de fofatidil-inositol (IP), assim como a ativação da via da MAPK foram significativamente afetadas em células transfectadas com o receptor mutado em relação ao receptor selvagem, indicando que a mutação p.R80C determina uma menor atividade do receptor. Avaliação da expressão por Western blot mostrou uma diminuição na expressão do receptor mutado R80C e uma maior expressão de receptores imaturos. Esses achados sugeriram o papel crítico da arginina localizada na posição 80 na atividade normal do receptor. Em conclusão, expandimos o repertório de mutações deletérias nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 em pacientes com hipogonadismo hipogonadotrófico isolado. A haploinsuficiência do PROKR2 não foi suficiente para causar síndrome de Kallmann ou HHIn, entretanto mutações inativadoras em homozigose nos genes PROK2 e PROKR2 foram responsáveis pelo fenótipo reprodutivo e olfatório anormal, em concordância com os estudos prévios de ablação gênica em modelos animais. Arginina localizada na posição 80 do PROKR2 desempenha um papel crucial na adequada maturação do receptor / Physiological activation of the prokineticin pathway has a critical role in olfactory bulb morphogenesis and GnRH secretion. Knock-out mice for genes that encode prokineticin 2 (PROK2) and the prokineticin receptor 2 (PROKR2) exhibited a phenotype similar to the Kallmann syndrome (KS). Inactivating mutations in PROK2 and PROKR2 have been identified in patients with isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Based on these findings, we investigated the presence of inactivating mutations of the genes PROK2 and PROKR2 in Brazilian patients with isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism associated or not with olfactory abnormalities and performed in vitro studies of the new identified mutations. We studied 107 patients with HH (63 with Kallmann syndrome and 44 with normosmic HH) and 100 control individuals. The coding regions of PROK2 and PROKR2 were amplified by polymerase chain reaction followed by enzymatic purification and direct automatic sequencing. In PROK2, two known frameshift mutations were identified. Two brothers with Kallmann syndrome harbored the homozygous p.G100fsX121 mutation, whereas one male with normosmic HH harbored the heterozygous p.I55fsX56 mutation. In PROKR2, four distinct mutations (p.R80C, p.Y140X, p.L173R and p.R268C) were identified in five patients with Kallmann syndrome and in one patient with normosmic HH. These mutations were not found in the control group. The p.R80C and p.R268C missense mutations were identified in heterozygous state in the HH patients and in their asymptomatic first-degree relatives. The p.L173R was also identified in heterozygous state. In addition, no mutations of FGFR1, GnRHR, KiSS-1 or GPR54 were identified in these patients. The patient with the PROKR2 mutation p.R268C also has a deletion of the exon 1 and 2 in the gene KAL1. Notably, the new nonsense mutation (p.Y140X) was identified in homozygous state in an anosmic boy with micropenis, bilateral cryptorchidism and high-arched palate. His asymptomatic parents were heterozygous for this severe defect. In vitro studies of the new mutation, p.R80C, were performed in order to access the mechanism by which this mutation could affect the activity of the PROKR2. In vitro studies showed that the amount of fofatidil-inositol (PI) and the activation of MAPK were significantly lower in cells transfected with the R80C mutant receptor than in cells transfected with the wild receptor, indicating that this variant is a loss-of-function mutation. Binding studies and Western blot showed a reduction in the expression levels of the receptor in the plasma membrane and in whole cell, respectively. Additionally, Western blot analysis of R80C PROKR2 revealed an additional smaller molecular weight band that represents the presence of immature unglycosylated receptors. The arginine 80 in ICL1 is important for post-translational processing of PROKR2. In conclusion, we expanded the repertoire of PROK2 and PROKR2 mutations in patients with HH and showed that PROKR2 haploinsufficiency is not sufficient to cause Kallmann syndrome or normosmic HH, whereas homozygous loss-of-function mutations either in PROK2 or PROKR2 are sufficient to cause disease phenotype, in accordance with the Prokr2 and Prok2 knockout mouse models. In vitro studies suggested that the arginine located at position 80 of the receptor seems to play an important role in the receptor function