La microscopie optique est une technique essentielle pour de nombreuses disciplines des sciences expérimentales qui nécessitent des résolutions sans cesse plus petites. Dans ce travail de thèse sont présentés plusieurs travaux pour l'amélioration de la résolution en microscopie de fluorescence et en microscopie tomographique par diffraction (MTD), une récente technique de microscopie de phase. Dans un premier temps, il est montré que déposer l'échantillon sur un miroir permet d'augmenter la résolution axiale en MTD et en microscopie confocale de fluorescence. En microscopie confocale, il faut pour cela mettre en forme le faisceau incident grâce à un modulateur spatial de lumière. En MTD, il suffit d'adapter le programme de reconstruction. La deuxième partie présente des algorithmes pour reconstruire des images haute résolution à partir de mesures en éclairement structuré avec de champs d'illumination inconnus, à la fois en microscopie de fluorescence (algorithme blind-SIM) et en MTD. En microscopie de fluorescence, ces algorithmes permettent de simplifier drastiquement les montages expérimentaux produisant l'éclairement structuré et en MTD, d'obtenir des images d'échantillons à fort indice. / Various fields of experimental science are constantly requiring smaller resolution for optical microscopy. In this thesis are presented several works for improving resolution in fluorescence microscopy and in Tomographic Diffraction Microscopy (TDM), an emerging phase microscopy technique. In the first part it is shown that one can improve the axial resolution in depositing the sample on a mirror. In confocal fluorescence microscopy, this is done by shaping the illumination beam with a Spatial Light Modulator. In TDM this is done by adapting the reconstruction method. Then algorithms are proposed for reconstructing high-resolution images from structured illumination measurements with unknown illumination fields, both in fluorescence imaging (blind-SIM algorithm) and in TDM. This allows a dramatical simplification of the experimental set-ups in fluorescence structured illumination and the image reconstruction of high optical index samples in TDM.

Neste trabalho estudamos a influência do tamanho molecular médio sobre a natureza da transição de fase esmética A (SA)-colestérica (C) líquido-cristalina para os compostos termotrópicos de miristato de colesterila (C14), nonanoato de colesterila (C9) e misturas binárias de C14 e C9 e caproato de colesterila (C6) e C9. Medidas de microscopia óptica foram realizadas para determinar as temperaturas de transição de fase SA C e C-isotrópica (I). Isto possibilitou a escolha dos intervalos de temperatura próximos às transições de fases, como referências para as outras técnicas utilizadas no trabalho. A natureza das transições de fase (descontínua, também denominada de primeira ordem, ou contínua) foi inferida através das análises de medidas de densidade e entálpicas. Os resultados evidenciaram que a transição passa de primeira ordem para contínua quando o tamanho molecular médio e a temperatura reduzida, r (definida como a razão entre as temperaturas de transição de fases SA C e C I ), decrescem no sistema. A ocorrência de uma transição de fase SA C contínua foi observada para a concentração de 65% de C9 na mistura C6 C9, para o valor de r ~ 0, 92. Propriedades mesoscópicas dos compostos estudados, como a distância entre as camadas esméticas na fase SA, dSA, o tamanho molecular médio, , no domínio C, e o comportamento do tamanho de correlação, , ao longo das transições de fase, foram determinadas da análise dos picos de difração de raios X. Os dados revelaram que dSA diminui com o decréscimo do tamanho molecular médio, como era esperado. Além disso, os valores de obtidos na fase C, próximos à transição I C, concordam com os tamanhos moleculares médios calculados supondo que as moléculas estejam em conformação estendida. Mais ainda, foi observado um aumento no tamanho de correlação na fase C quando a temperatura é reduzida da fase I para a fase SA, representando um aumento no grau de ordem orientacional. Contudo, o parâmetro troca abruptamente na transição C SA. Tal descontinuidade diminui com o decréscimo do tamanho molecular médio (e assim com r). Para o sistema particular composto por 65% C9 : 35% C6, onde identificamos um transição de fase contínua SA C, observamos um comportamento de (T TSAC)0,5 no domínio da fase C, em bom acordo com a teoria de campo médio. / The influence of the mean molecular length on the nature of the smectic A (SA)- cholesteric (C) liquid crystal phase transition has been studied for cholesteryl myristate (C14), cholesteryl nonanoate (C9) and binary mixtures of C14 and C9 and cholesteryl caproate (C6) and C9. Optical microscopy was carried out to determine the temperatures of the SAC as weel as the C - isotropic (I) phase transitions. This allowed the choice of the optimum temperature interval near the phase transitions. Information concerning the nature of the transitions (descontinuous, also referred to as first order, or continuous) was evaluated through the analysis of the density and enthalpic measurements. The results have evidenced that the transition crosses over from first order to continuous when both the mean molecular length and the reduced temperature, r (ratio between SAC and CI phase transition temperatures), decrease in the system. The occurrence of a continuous SA C phase transition is observed for a concentration very near 63.1 molar percent of C9 in the C6 C9 mixture (65 wt% C9 : 35 wt% C6), at r ~ 0.92. Mesoscopic properties of the systems, as the distance between the smectic layers in the SA phase, dSA, the mean molecular length, , in the C domain, and the correlation length, , behavior along the phase transitons, were determined from the X-ray difraction peaks. The data have revealed that dSA decreases as the mean molecular length is reduced, as it was expected. Moreover, values obtained in the C phase near the I C phase transition agree with the mean molecular lengths calculated from the corresponding extended molecule lengths. In addition, an increase in the correlation length in the C phase is observed, as the temperature is reduced from I to SA phases, representing an increase in the orientational order. Nevertheless, the parameter jumps in the C SA phase transition. Such discontinuity decreases as the mean molecular length (and hence the reduced temperature) diminishes. For the particular system composed of 65 wt% C9 : 35 wt% C6, where a continuous SA C phase transition was identified, a behavior of (T TSAC)0,5 in the C domain was observed, in good agreement with the mean field theory.

O diagnóstico preciso das características morfológicas e metabólicas de um tecido e/ou órgão com a finalidade de identificar alterações patológicas, ou avaliar um determinado tratamento, é de grande importância nas áreas de biologia e medicina. Uma excelente alternativa para este diagnóstico, e que permite uma visualização com resolução celular, são imagens de microscopia óptica. Tradicionalmente, analisam-se as características celulares através de processos histológicos; contudo, mais recentemente essa mesma análise tornou-se possível em tecidos sem a necessidade deste preparo histológico. Fenômenos de óptica não-linear, como a fluorescência devido à absorção de dois fótons e a geração de segundo harmônico, são exemplos de processos que podem ser realizados sem preparo histológico com o objetivo de se obter imagens microscópicas em diferentes profundidades com resolução celular. Este projeto teve por objetivo desenvolver um microscópio óptico de varredura a laser baseado em processos ópticos não lineares, para adquirir imagens de tecidos e órgãos, nas condições in vitro, in vivo e ex vivo. O microscópio óptico montado é composto por: um laser de pulsos ultracurtos sintonizável (Ti:Safira), um sistema de varredura espacial (dois espelhos conectados a galvanômetros e conjugados por dois espelhos esféricos, para varredura lateral, e uma plataforma piezoelétrica para varredura axial), uma lente objetiva (20X, abertura numérica de 1,0, imersão em água e distância funcional de 2,0 mm) e um sistema de aquisição e controle. A resolução lateral obtida foi de (0,8±0,1) μm e axial de (4,4±1,5) μm, suficiente para a realização de imagens com resolução subcelular de tecidos biológicos. Imagens de fluorescência e por geração de segundo harmônico foram obtidas com sucesso a partir de tecido ex vivo de pele e fígado de rato, pele de porco e de membrana corioalantóica. Estas imagens revelaram aspectos tidos como relevantes na análise morfo-histopatológica – como estruturas nucleares e de membrana, e a presença de colágeno, e com vantagens como coleta de informação vinda de diferentes camadas do tecido. A montagem desse sistema apresenta potencial para contribuir em estudos em diagnóstico e tratamento de lesões sejam feitos de modo que, no futuro, essa análise resulte em diagnósticos mais precisos e tratamentos mais efetivos. / Accurate diagnosis of the morphological and metabolic conditions of a tissue and/or an organ is essential to define the presence of pathological changes, and to evaluate the response during a number of treatments. The use of optical techniques for biological tissue imaging is an excellent alternative for this purpose. Such techniques allow non-invasive diagnostic procedures, with cellular resolution, and usually provide almost instantaneous response. The use of nonlinear optical techniques such as fluorescence promoted by two-photon absorption is one example of optical technique in which we obtain images of living tissue with spatial resolution at cellular level. The purpose of this study is the assembly and characterization of a custom-made non-linear microscope. This microscope allows customized adjustment for in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo imaging of biological samples. The excitation is done using a tunable femtosecond Ti:Sapphire laser. Two galvanometer mirrors conjugated by two spherical mirrors are used for the lateral scan and for the axial scan a piezoeletric stage is utilized. The light is focused in tissue by an 20X objective lens, in water immersion, numerical aperture of 1.0, and working distance of 2.0 mm. The lateral resolution obtained was (0.8 ± 0.1) μm and (4.4 ± 1.5) μm for axial resolution, which is sufficient for images with sub-cellular resolution to be achieved in biological tissues. Fluorescence and second harmonic generation images were performed using epithelial and hepatic tissue. Those images revealed aspects considered relevant in morpho-histopathology – such as nuclear and citoplasm membrane structures, and the presence of collagen. By means of the microscope it is possible to have images in different depths of tissues with sub-cellular resolution. The assembly of such an equipment shall represent a potential contribution to diagnostics and lesion treatment fields, so that it may result in more precise detection of diseases and more effective treatments in the future.

Plasmons, i.e. collective oscillations of conduction electrons, have a strong influence on the optical properties of metal micro- and nanostructures and are of great interest for novel photonic devices. Here, plasmons on metal-dielectric interfaces are investigated using near-field optical microscopy and differential angular reflectance spectroscopy. Emphasis is placed on the study of plasmon interaction with individual nanostructures and on the nonlinear process of surface plasmon amplification. Specifically, plasmon transmission across single grooves in thin silver films is investigated with the help of a near-field optical microscope. It is found that plasmon transmittance as a function of groove width shows a non-monotonic behavior, exhibiting certain favorable groove widths with strongly decreased transmittance values. Additionally, evidence of groove-mediated plasmon mode coupling is observed. Spatial beating due to different plasmon wave vectors produces distinct interference features in near-field optical images. A theoretical approach explains these observations and gives estimated coupling effciencies deduced from visibility considerations. Furthermore, stimulated emission of surface plasmons induced by optical pumping using an organic dye solution is demonstrated for the first time. For this a novel twin-attenuated-total-reflection scheme is introduced. The experiment is described by a theoretical model which exhibits very good agreement. Together they provide clear evidence of the claimed process.

No description available.

Histology has long recognized the intimate link between structure and function. Over centuries histologists have utilized an assortment of optical microscopy techniques to elucidate functional attributes of tissues through investigating tissue architecture. This thesis includes developments in the field of nonlinear optical microscopy for use in histology and pathology. The main contributions focused on the study of fibrillar collagen in the extracellular matrix (ECM) with polarization-dependent second harmonic generation (P-SHG) microscopy and the study of harmonophore-stained cellular nuclei with third harmonic generation (THG) microscopy. The P-SHG microscopy technique, “polarization-in, polarization-out” (PIPO), was developed to accurately determine the second-order polarization properties of thin tissue sections. The polarization instrumentation was implemented into a nonlinear optical microscope and a custom fitting algorithm extracted ratios of the second-order nonlinear susceptibility elements at every pixel of an obtained image. Hierarchical organization, at every level of structure, can contribute significantly to the macroscopic second-order polarization properties of fibrillar collagen in the ECM and quantifiable differences between the various tissue architectures were observed. A framework was developed, based on the collagen hierarchical organization, to interpret the submicron polarization properties of various tissues. Complimentary to the P-SHG study of connective tissue, the structure of hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained nuclei was revealed by THG microscopy. Imaging the 3D organization of nuclei was possible using the inherent optical sectioning provided by nonlinear microscopy. The origin of THG was investigated with spectrally- and temporally-resolved measurements, as well as the THG ratio method. A rather complex situation involving multiple dye complexes was revealed. The structure of dye aggregates was investigated with THG PIPO microscopy. The techniques of PIPO and harmonophore-stained harmonic generation microscopy show great potential for ultimately furthering understanding of tissue structure and function. H&E stained tissue investigations with THG microscopy has applications as a tool for cancer diagnostics. PIPO can elucidate the symmetry and organization of materials beyond tissues, including starch, nanowires, and protein crystals. In pathology, the developed collagen framework has strong implications, as collagen is recognized as playing a more active role in a number of diseases including idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, wound repair, and tumour development and progression.

Histology has long recognized the intimate link between structure and function. Over centuries histologists have utilized an assortment of optical microscopy techniques to elucidate functional attributes of tissues through investigating tissue architecture. This thesis includes developments in the field of nonlinear optical microscopy for use in histology and pathology. The main contributions focused on the study of fibrillar collagen in the extracellular matrix (ECM) with polarization-dependent second harmonic generation (P-SHG) microscopy and the study of harmonophore-stained cellular nuclei with third harmonic generation (THG) microscopy. The P-SHG microscopy technique, “polarization-in, polarization-out” (PIPO), was developed to accurately determine the second-order polarization properties of thin tissue sections. The polarization instrumentation was implemented into a nonlinear optical microscope and a custom fitting algorithm extracted ratios of the second-order nonlinear susceptibility elements at every pixel of an obtained image. Hierarchical organization, at every level of structure, can contribute significantly to the macroscopic second-order polarization properties of fibrillar collagen in the ECM and quantifiable differences between the various tissue architectures were observed. A framework was developed, based on the collagen hierarchical organization, to interpret the submicron polarization properties of various tissues. Complimentary to the P-SHG study of connective tissue, the structure of hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained nuclei was revealed by THG microscopy. Imaging the 3D organization of nuclei was possible using the inherent optical sectioning provided by nonlinear microscopy. The origin of THG was investigated with spectrally- and temporally-resolved measurements, as well as the THG ratio method. A rather complex situation involving multiple dye complexes was revealed. The structure of dye aggregates was investigated with THG PIPO microscopy. The techniques of PIPO and harmonophore-stained harmonic generation microscopy show great potential for ultimately furthering understanding of tissue structure and function. H&E stained tissue investigations with THG microscopy has applications as a tool for cancer diagnostics. PIPO can elucidate the symmetry and organization of materials beyond tissues, including starch, nanowires, and protein crystals. In pathology, the developed collagen framework has strong implications, as collagen is recognized as playing a more active role in a number of diseases including idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, wound repair, and tumour development and progression.

O endotélio da córnea realiza a função importante na manutenção da transparência da mesma e regulação da hidratação do estroma. É composto por uma monocamada de células poligonais, achatadas e interligadas que recobrem a superfície posterior da córnea. Dentre as técnicas utilizadas para avaliação do endotélio, o vermelho de alizarina é uma técnica in vitro de baixo custo, de rápida e fácil execução. Objetivou-se avaliar as células do endotélio da córnea de suínos adultos em suas diferentes regiões, utilizando a coloração por vermelho de alizarina e microscopia óptica. Para esse estudo, foram utilizados 24 bulbos oculares de 12 suínos abatidos, 120 dias de idade, da raça Large White, adultos, machos ou fêmeas. As córneas foram removidas, e o endotélio corado com vermelho de alizarina dissolvido previamente em solução isotônica (0,2 g/100 ml), com pH ajustado para 4,2 com ácido clorídrico e avaliadas no microscópio óptico. Foram feitas fotografias das regiões central, inferior, lateral, medial e superior do endotélio da córnea e, após, foi realizado o estudo do formato de 100 células. Para análise estatística, foi utilizado o teste de variância (ANOVA por medidas repetidas). A percentagem média de células hexagonais na região central do globo ocular direito foi de 82,75%± 6,355, na região inferior 84,83% ± 4,108, na lateral 86,0%± 4,090, na região medial 83,50%± 2,447 e na região superior 83,17%± 4,345. No globo ocular esquerdo, a percentagem média de células hexagonais na região central foi de 81,92 % ±2,539, na região inferior foi de 83,67% ± 3,339, na região lateral de 84,00% ±3,618, na região medial 84,17%± 3,010 e na região superior 82,83% ± 4,064. Não houve diferença estatística significativa com relação à morfologia entre as diferentes regiões da córnea e entre os globos oculares direito e esquerdo. A coloração com vermelho de alizarina e a microscopia óptica foram eficazes para avaliação do formato das células do endotélio da córnea de suínos. Os valores obtidos, com relação ao formato das células da região central da córnea, representam todo o mosaico endotelial, podendo ser extrapolados para as regiões periféricas. / The corneal endothelium perform are important function in maintaing corneal transparency and regulating stromal hydration. It consists of monolayer polygonal cells, fattened and joined, covering of the posterior surface of the cornea. Among the technique used for evaluating the endothelium, Alizarin red vital dye is a in vitro technique for low coast, fast and easy perform. This study aimed to evaluated the endothelial cells from adult pigs cornea in its different regions used the coloration by Alizarin red and, optical microscopy. For this study we used 24 eye bulbs of 12 slaughtered pigs, 120 day of age, of Large White breed, adults, male or female. The cornea was removed and the endothelium stained with Alizarin red, previously dissolved in isotonic solution (0,2g/100 ml), pH adjusted to 4,2 with hydrochloric acid, and evaluated in optical microscope. Photographs were taken of the central regions, lateral, medial and upper corneal endothelium. After the study was performed of 100 cells format. For statistical analysis we used the analysis of variance (ANOVA for repeated measures). The average percentage of hexagonal cells in the central region in the right eye was 82,75%±6,355, in the lower 84,83% ± 4,108, on lateral 86,0%± 4,090, in the medial region 83,50%± 2,447 and the upper region 83,17%± 4,345. In the left eye, the percentage of hexagonal cells in the central region was 81,92 % ±2,539, in lower 83,67% ± 3,339, in lateral 84,00% ±3,618, in medial 84,17%± 3,010 and in upper region 82,83%± 4,064. There was no statistically significant difference in the relation morphology between the different regions of the cornea and between the right and left eyeballs. Staining with Alizarin red and optical microscopy were effective for evaluating the shape of the endothelial cells of the pig cornea. The values obtained in relation of the shape of the central cornea cells, represent the entire endothelial mosaic and can be extrapolated to the peripheral regions.

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