<p>In the work underlying this thesis solid-phase microextraction (SPME) was evaluated as a passive sampling technique for organophosphate triesters in indoor air. These compounds are used on a large scale as flame-retarding and plastizicing additives in a variety of materials and products, and have proven to be common pollutants in indoor air. The main objective of this work was to develop an accurate method for measuring the volatile fraction. Such a method can be used in combination with active sampling to obtain information regarding the vapour/particulate distribution in different indoor environments. SPME was investigated under both equilibrium and non-equilibrium conditions and parameters associated with these different conditions were estimated. </p><p>In <b>Paper I</b>, time-weighted average (TWA) SPME under dynamic conditions was investigated in order to obtain a fast air sampling method for organophosphate triesters. Among the investigated SPME coatings, the absorptive PDMS polymer had the highest affinity for the organophosphate triesters and was consequently used in all further work. Since the sampling rate is dependent on the agitation conditions, the linear airflow rates had to be carefully considered. Sampling periods as short as 1 hour were shown to be sufficient for measurements in the ng-μg m^-3 range when using a PDMS 100-μm fibre and a linear flow rate above 7 cm s^-1 over the fibre. </p><p>SPME under equilibrium conditions is rather time-consuming, even under dynamic conditions, for slowly partitioning compounds such as organophosphate triesters. Nevertheless, this method has some significant advantages. For instance, the limit of detection is much lower compared to 1 h TWA sampling. Furthermore, the sampling time can be ignored as long as equilibrium has been attained. In <b>Paper II</b>, SPME under equilibrium conditions was investigated and evaluated for organophosphate triester vapours. Since temperature and humidity are closely associated with the distribution constant a simple study of the effect of these parameters was performed. The obtained distribution constants were used to determine the air levels in a common indoor environment. SPME and parallel active sampling on filters yielded similar results, indicating that the detected compounds were almost entirely associated with the vapour phase</p><p>To apply dynamic SPME method in the field a sampler device, which enables controlled linear airflow rates to be applied, was constructed and evaluated (<b>Paper III</b>). This device was developed for application of SPME and active sampling in parallel.</p><p>A GC/PICI-MS/MS method was developed and used in combination with active sampling of organophosphate triesters in indoor air (<b>Paper IV</b>). The combination of MS/MS and the soft ionization achieved with methanol as reagent gas yielded high selectivity and detection limits comparable to those provided by GC with nitrogen-phosphorus detection (NPD). The method limit of detection, when sampling 1.5 m³ of air, was in the range 0.1-1.4 ng m^-3. In <b>Paper V</b>, the developed MS method was used in combination with SPME for indoor air measurements.</p><p>The levels detected in the investigated indoor environments range from a few ng to μg m^-3. Tris(2-chloropropyl) phosphate was detected at a concentration as high as 7 μg m^-3 in a newly rebuilt lecture room.</p>

<p>Following the phase out of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), manufacturers turned to several alternative flame retardants (FRs) to meet flammability standards. Organophosphate FRs (OPFRs), and in particular tris (1,3-dichloropropyl) phosphate (TDCPP), have been increasingly detected in textiles and foam padding used in a variety of consumer products including camping equipment, upholstered furniture, and baby products. Like PBDEs, OPFRs are additive, meaning that they are not chemically bound to the treated material and can more readily leach out into the surrounding environment. Indeed, OPFRs have been detected in numerous environmental and biological matrices, often at concentrations similar to or exceeding that of PBDEs.</p><p>Although OPFRs have been in use for several decades, relatively little is known regarding their potential for adverse human and environmental health consequences. However, based on their structural similarity to OP pesticides, they may have analogous mechanisms of toxicity. OP pesticide toxicity is classically associated with cholinesterase inhibition, resulting in cholinergic intoxication syndrome. OPFRs have been shown to be ineffective cholinesterase inhibitors, however chlorpyrifos (CPF) and other OP pesticides have been shown to elicit adverse effects on developing organisms through other mechanisms.</p><p>The main objective of this research project was to evaluate the toxicity of four structurally similar OPFRs (TDCPP; tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate, (TDBPP); tris (1-chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP) and tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP)) in comparison to chlorpyrifos (CPF), a well-studied OP pesticide. A combination of in vitro and in vivo models was used to elucidate potential mechanisms as well as functional consequences of exposure in developing organisms. </p><p>In the first research aim, a series of in vitro experiments with neurotypic PC12 cells was used to evaluate the effects of four structurally similar OPFRs (TDCPP, TDBPP, TCEP, or TCPP) and CPF on neurodevelopment. The effects of TDCPP were also compared to that of BDE-47, a major component of the commercial PentaBDE mixture. In general, TDCPP elicited similar or greater effects when compared to an equimolar concentration of CPF. All OPFRs tested produced similar decrements in cell number and altered phenotypic differentiation, while BDE-47 had no effect on cell number, cell growth, or neurite growth. </p><p>For the second research aim, zebrafish (Danio rerio) were used to evaluate the effects of the same suite of chemicals on early development. TDCPP, TDBPP, and CPF elicited overt toxicity (e.g., malformations or death) within the concentration range tested (0.033-100 µM). TDBPP was the most potent with 100% mortality by 6 days post fertilization (dpf) at &#8805;3.3 µM. CPF and TDCPP showed equivalent toxicity with malformations observed in at 10 µM and significant mortality (&#8805;75%) at &#8805;33 µM. There was no overt toxicity among TCEP- and TCPP-exposed fish. All test chemicals affected larval swimming behavior on 6 dpf at concentrations below the overt toxicity threshold. Parent chemical was detected in all in embryonic (1 dpf) and larval (5 dpf) tissues. TDCPP and TDBPP showed rapid and extensive metabolism.</p><p>Finally, for the third aim, juvenile (45-55 dpf) zebrafish were exposed to CPF (1 µg/g food) or TDCPP (Low TDCPP = 1 µg/g food; High TDCPP = 40 µg/g food) via diet for 28 days followed by a 7 day depuration period where all treatments received clean food. A dietary exposure was chosen to more closely recapitulate exposure in humans. Samples were collected at seven time points throughout the experiment: days 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 30, 35. Whole tissues were collected for tissue accumulation and histopathology endpoints. Viscera and brain were dissected and flash frozen separately for DNA damage analyses. </p><p>Tissue measurements of CPF, TDCPP, and the metabolite bis (1,3-dichloropropyl) phosphate (BDCPP) were often below the method detection limit, however when present there was a trend towards increased accumulation with treatment and time. On Day 7 Low TDCPP caused a dramatic but transient increase in DNA damage in both viscera and brain that returned to control levels by Day 14. Similar results have been seen previously with other genotoxicants and may be due to CPF and High TDCPP inducing an adaptive response prior to the 7 day sampling point. All treatments shifted the neurohypophysis to adenohypophysis ratio (NH/AH; Day 7 only) and significantly increased thyroid follicle activation (Day 14). Finally High TDCPP affected gonad maturation, causing a significant increase in ovary follicle development (Day 14) and a transient but marked decrease in testes maturity (Day 7). Taken together these data suggest that dietary exposure to TDCPP and CPF elicits DNA damage in brain and viscera and alters endocrine function in juvenile zebrafish. Importantly, analyses were restricted to the first three time points (Days 0, 7, and 14) due to the emergence a disease among the experimental colony. Although these samples were collected prior to the disease becoming apparent, it remains a potential confounder of the current results.</p> / Dissertation

Neste trabalho, foi realizada uma triagem com os fungos marinhos Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 934, Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 935, Aspergillus sydowii 1241, Penicillium decaturense CBMAI 1234, Penicillium raistrickii CBMAI 931, Penicillium raistrickii CBMAI 1235 e Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932 com o objetivo de avaliar o potencial enzimático destes micro-organismos frente à biodegradação dos pesticidas organofosforados clorpirifós, metil paration e profenofós. Os fungos selecionados para as reações em meio líquido de malte 2%, que melhor adaptaram-se na presença do pesticida clorpirifós, foram as cepas de A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932, na presença de metil paration foram A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e P. decaturense CBMAI 1234 e na presença de profenofós foram os fungos A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e P. raistrickii CBMAI 931. Foram realizadas curvas analíticas com o objetivo de estimar a extensão da biodegradação dos pesticidas clorpirifós, metil paration, profenofós, e seus respectivos produtos de hidrólise, os derivados fenólicos 3,5,6-tricloro-2-piridinol, 4-nitrofenol e 4-bromo-2-clorofenol, respectivamente. As reações de biodegradação em meio líquido de malte 2% foram avaliadas com 10, 20 e 30 dias de reação com concentração inicial dos pesticidas organofosforados de 50 ppm. O pesticida, profenofós, apresentou uma biodegradação completa com o fungo P.raistrickii CBMAI 931 com 30 dias de reação, e 70% com o fungo A. sydowii CBMAI 935, para o mesmo período. Os fungos também apresentaram potencial para a degradação (ou conjugação) do metabólito, 4-bromo-2-clorofenol. Na presença dos fungos A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932, clorpirifós apresentou a menor degradação entre os pesticidas avaliados, com uma taxa de degradação de 63 e 72%, respectivamente, em 30 dias de reação. Os fungos selecionados não foram capazes de promover uma degradação apreciável do 3,5,6-tricloro-2-piridinol. Na presença dos fungos A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e P. decaturense CBMAI 1234, o metil paration apresentou uma degradação de 100% em 20 dias de reação. O 4-nitrofenol apresentou degradação (ou conjugação) de aproximadamente 50 e 40% na presença dos fungos A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e P. decaturense CBMAI 1234, respectivamente. Finalmente, os estudos apresentados comprovam a eficiência dos fungos de ambiente marinhos na biodegradação de pesticidas organofosforados. / In this work was performed a screening with the marine fungi Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 934, Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 935, Aspergillus sydowii 1241, Penicillium decaturense CBMAI 1234, Penicillium raistrickii CBMAI 931, Penicillium raistrickii CBMAI 1235 e Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932 to evaluate the enzymatic potential of these microorganisms in the presence of organophosphate pesticides chlorpyrifos, methyl parathion and profenofos. The selected fungi for the reactions in liquid medium of malt 2%, which demonstrated better adaptation in presence of the pesticide chlorpyrifos, were the strains of A.sydowii CBMAI 935 and Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932, in the presence of methyl parathion were A.sydowii CBMAI 935 and P. decaturense CBMAI 1234 and, in presence of profenofos were the fungi A. sydowii CBMAI 935 and P. raistrickii CBMAI 931. Analytical curves were performed in order to estimate the extent of biodegradation of the pesticide chlorpyrifos, methyl parathion, profenofos, and their hydrolysis products, 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol, 4-nitrophenol, 4-bromo 2-chlorophenol, respectively. Biodegradation reactions in liquid medium of malt 2% were evaluated with 10, 20 and 30 days with an initial concentration of 50 ppm of organophosphate pesticides. Profenofos, presented a complete biodegradation (100%) with the fungus P.raistrickii CBMAI 931, in 30 days of reaction, and 70% of biodegradation in the presence of the fungus A. sydowii CBMAI 935, at the same period. The fungi also showed a potential for degradation (or conjugation) of 4-bromo-2-chlorophenol. In the presence of the fungus A. sydowii CBMAI 935 and Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932, chlorpyrifos exhibited the lowest degradation among the evaluated pesticides, presenting a degradation rate of 63 and 72%, respectively, at 30 days of reaction. The selected fungi were not capable of promoting an appreciable degradation of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol. In the presence of A. sydowii CBMAI 935 and P. decaturense CBMAI 1234, methyl parathion showed a degradation of 100%, at 20 days of reaction. The 4-nitrophenol showed a degradation (or conjugation) of approximately 50 and 40% in the presence of the fungus A. sydowii CBMAI 935 and P. decaturense CBMAI 1234, respectively. Finally, the presented studies demonstrated the efficiency of the marine fungi in biodegradation of organophosphate pesticides.

Neste trabalho, foi realizada uma triagem com os fungos marinhos Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 934, Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 935, Aspergillus sydowii 1241, Penicillium decaturense CBMAI 1234, Penicillium raistrickii CBMAI 931, Penicillium raistrickii CBMAI 1235 e Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932 com o objetivo de avaliar o potencial enzimático destes micro-organismos frente à biodegradação dos pesticidas organofosforados clorpirifós, metil paration e profenofós. Os fungos selecionados para as reações em meio líquido de malte 2%, que melhor adaptaram-se na presença do pesticida clorpirifós, foram as cepas de A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932, na presença de metil paration foram A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e P. decaturense CBMAI 1234 e na presença de profenofós foram os fungos A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e P. raistrickii CBMAI 931. Foram realizadas curvas analíticas com o objetivo de estimar a extensão da biodegradação dos pesticidas clorpirifós, metil paration, profenofós, e seus respectivos produtos de hidrólise, os derivados fenólicos 3,5,6-tricloro-2-piridinol, 4-nitrofenol e 4-bromo-2-clorofenol, respectivamente. As reações de biodegradação em meio líquido de malte 2% foram avaliadas com 10, 20 e 30 dias de reação com concentração inicial dos pesticidas organofosforados de 50 ppm. O pesticida, profenofós, apresentou uma biodegradação completa com o fungo P.raistrickii CBMAI 931 com 30 dias de reação, e 70% com o fungo A. sydowii CBMAI 935, para o mesmo período. Os fungos também apresentaram potencial para a degradação (ou conjugação) do metabólito, 4-bromo-2-clorofenol. Na presença dos fungos A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932, clorpirifós apresentou a menor degradação entre os pesticidas avaliados, com uma taxa de degradação de 63 e 72%, respectivamente, em 30 dias de reação. Os fungos selecionados não foram capazes de promover uma degradação apreciável do 3,5,6-tricloro-2-piridinol. Na presença dos fungos A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e P. decaturense CBMAI 1234, o metil paration apresentou uma degradação de 100% em 20 dias de reação. O 4-nitrofenol apresentou degradação (ou conjugação) de aproximadamente 50 e 40% na presença dos fungos A. sydowii CBMAI 935 e P. decaturense CBMAI 1234, respectivamente. Finalmente, os estudos apresentados comprovam a eficiência dos fungos de ambiente marinhos na biodegradação de pesticidas organofosforados. / In this work was performed a screening with the marine fungi Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 934, Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 935, Aspergillus sydowii 1241, Penicillium decaturense CBMAI 1234, Penicillium raistrickii CBMAI 931, Penicillium raistrickii CBMAI 1235 e Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932 to evaluate the enzymatic potential of these microorganisms in the presence of organophosphate pesticides chlorpyrifos, methyl parathion and profenofos. The selected fungi for the reactions in liquid medium of malt 2%, which demonstrated better adaptation in presence of the pesticide chlorpyrifos, were the strains of A.sydowii CBMAI 935 and Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932, in the presence of methyl parathion were A.sydowii CBMAI 935 and P. decaturense CBMAI 1234 and, in presence of profenofos were the fungi A. sydowii CBMAI 935 and P. raistrickii CBMAI 931. Analytical curves were performed in order to estimate the extent of biodegradation of the pesticide chlorpyrifos, methyl parathion, profenofos, and their hydrolysis products, 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol, 4-nitrophenol, 4-bromo 2-chlorophenol, respectively. Biodegradation reactions in liquid medium of malt 2% were evaluated with 10, 20 and 30 days with an initial concentration of 50 ppm of organophosphate pesticides. Profenofos, presented a complete biodegradation (100%) with the fungus P.raistrickii CBMAI 931, in 30 days of reaction, and 70% of biodegradation in the presence of the fungus A. sydowii CBMAI 935, at the same period. The fungi also showed a potential for degradation (or conjugation) of 4-bromo-2-chlorophenol. In the presence of the fungus A. sydowii CBMAI 935 and Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932, chlorpyrifos exhibited the lowest degradation among the evaluated pesticides, presenting a degradation rate of 63 and 72%, respectively, at 30 days of reaction. The selected fungi were not capable of promoting an appreciable degradation of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol. In the presence of A. sydowii CBMAI 935 and P. decaturense CBMAI 1234, methyl parathion showed a degradation of 100%, at 20 days of reaction. The 4-nitrophenol showed a degradation (or conjugation) of approximately 50 and 40% in the presence of the fungus A. sydowii CBMAI 935 and P. decaturense CBMAI 1234, respectively. Finally, the presented studies demonstrated the efficiency of the marine fungi in biodegradation of organophosphate pesticides.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-10T14:38:31Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Thais_ Sobjak.pdf: 1847698 bytes, checksum: 24153036e5d148ad4316a83db73814fc (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-12-08 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The advancement of agricultural techniques has enabled improvement and greater productivity, but also made the use of agrochemicals and inadequate in promoting exaggerated acute effects to non-target species. The pesticides are agents of greatest potential in degradation of aquatic environments, since, through the flood of agricultural areas, flowing organic or inorganic substances, natural or synthetic. Among the pesticides most used currently, include the non-selective herbicide glyphosate and organophosphorus compounds. To understand and prevent the damage caused to the environment, researchers have used multiple biomarkers as an effective tool for evaluation of environmental contamination. This study was divided into two studies: a manipulative experiment and other natural. The first study aimed to investigate the neurotoxic effects and about the system in larvae of Rhamdia quelen exposed to sublethal concentration of glyphosate. In this study it was possible to conclude that, in spite of the animals exposed to glyphosate having highest percentage of survival, there was an early induction of cholinesterase activity and antioxidant system, followed by the difficulty of maintaining the activities of antioxidant system in later times, resulting in a greater injury at the cellular level. The stress that animals suffer when they are exposed to the herbicide glyphosate causes a change in your metabolism being characteristic of elastic resistance. In the second study, the objective was to evaluate changes in antioxidant system and neurotoxic R. branneri present in streams with different levels of environmental contamination during autumn and winter. In this analysis, the response of biomarkers is related to the temporal variation, and possibly the exposure of these animals to pesticides. With the results obtained showed that the local biota responded differently in each season, signaling that the fauna is in contact with oxidizing agents and cholinesterasic in the period of autumn, when there is increased frequency of planting and use of pesticides / O avanço das técnicas agrícolas possibilitou melhoria e maior produtividade de alimentos, mas também fez com que o uso exacerbado e inadequado de agroquímicos promovesse efeitos agudos a espécies não-alvo. Os agrotóxicos são os agentes de maior potencial na degradação dos ambientes aquáticos, já que, por meio do deflúvio superficial de áreas agrícolas, escoam substâncias orgânicas ou inorgânicas, naturais ou sintéticas. Dentre os agrotóxicos mais utilizados atualmente pode-se citar o herbicida não-seletivo glifosato e compostos organofosforados. Para se compreender e prevenir os danos causados ao ambiente, pesquisadores têm utilizado múltiplos biomarcadores como uma ferramenta eficaz para avaliação de contaminação ambiental. O presente estudo foi dividido em dois estudos: um experimento manipulativo e outro natural. O primeiro estudo teve por objetivo investigar os efeitos neurotóxicos e sobre o sistema em larvas de Rhamdia quelen expostas a concentração subletal de glifosato. Neste estudo foi possível concluir que, apesar dos animais expostos ao glifosato terem maior porcentagem de sobrevivência, ocorreu uma indução precoce da atividade colinesterásica e do sistema antioxidante, seguido da dificuldade de manutenção das atividades do sistema antioxidante nos horários posteriores, resultando em uma maior lesão ao nível celular. O estresse que os animais sofreram ao serem expostos ao herbicida glifosato provoca uma alteração no seu metabolismo sendo característica de resistência elástica. No segundo estudo, o objetivo proposto foi avaliar alterações neurotóxicas e do sistema antioxidante em R. branneri presentes em riachos com diferentes níveis de contaminação ambiental nos períodos de outono e inverno. Nesta análise, a resposta dos biomarcadores está relacionada à variação temporal, e possivelmente à exposição desses animais à agrotóxicos. Com os resultados obtidos observou-se que, a biota local respondeu de forma diferente em cada estação, sinalizando que a fauna está em contato com agentes oxidantes e colinesterásicos no período de outono, quando há maior frequência de plantio e uso de agrotóxicos

Organophosphate hydrolase (OPH, EC 3.1.8.1) is a bacterial enzyme with a broad spectrum of potential substrates that include organophosphorus pesticides, herbicides, and chemical warfare agents. OPH has been expressed successfully in bacterial, fungal, and insect cell culture systems; however, none of these systems produces amounts of enzyme suitable for applications outside of the research laboratory. Therefore, a transgenic Zea mays L. (maize) system was developed to express OPH as an alternate to the current OPH expression systems. The bacterial gene encoding the OPH protein was optimized for transcriptional and translational expression in maize. The optimized gene was inserted into the maize genome under the control of embryo specific, endosperm specific, and constitutive plant promoters. Select transformants were analyzed for the expression of OPH. Expression was observed in the seeds of plants transformed with each of the three constructs with the highest expression observed with the embryo specific and constitutive promoter constructs. The highest OPH expressing lines of transgenic maize had expression levels higher than those reported for the E. coli expression system. OPH was purified from transgenic maize seed and analyzed for posttranslational modification and kinetic properties. OPH was observed to undergo a glycosylation event when expressed in maize that yielded at least two forms of OPH homogolous dimer. The glycosylated form of OPH bound tightly to the Concanavalin A sepharose and remained active after months of storage at room temperature. OPH activity was checked against a number of organophosphate herbicides. Enzymatic activity was observed against the herbicide Amiprophos-methyl and kinetic properties were measured. Enzymatic activity was also tested against the organophosphate Haloxon. Transgenic maize callus, leaf, and seed tissue could be screened for the presence of the optimized opd gene by enzymatic activity. Comparison of the growth of transgenic and control callus on media containing organophosphates showed that the transgenic callus was resistant to the herbicidal effects of haloxon. Transgenic plants expressing OPH were also resistant to the herbicide bensulide when compared to control plants. This indicates that OPH can be used as a screenable marker in plant systems and may be a potential scorable marker system as well.

In the work underlying this thesis solid-phase microextraction (SPME) was evaluated as a passive sampling technique for organophosphate triesters in indoor air. These compounds are used on a large scale as flame-retarding and plastizicing additives in a variety of materials and products, and have proven to be common pollutants in indoor air. The main objective of this work was to develop an accurate method for measuring the volatile fraction. Such a method can be used in combination with active sampling to obtain information regarding the vapour/particulate distribution in different indoor environments. SPME was investigated under both equilibrium and non-equilibrium conditions and parameters associated with these different conditions were estimated. In <b>Paper I</b>, time-weighted average (TWA) SPME under dynamic conditions was investigated in order to obtain a fast air sampling method for organophosphate triesters. Among the investigated SPME coatings, the absorptive PDMS polymer had the highest affinity for the organophosphate triesters and was consequently used in all further work. Since the sampling rate is dependent on the agitation conditions, the linear airflow rates had to be carefully considered. Sampling periods as short as 1 hour were shown to be sufficient for measurements in the ng-μg m-3 range when using a PDMS 100-μm fibre and a linear flow rate above 7 cm s-1 over the fibre. SPME under equilibrium conditions is rather time-consuming, even under dynamic conditions, for slowly partitioning compounds such as organophosphate triesters. Nevertheless, this method has some significant advantages. For instance, the limit of detection is much lower compared to 1 h TWA sampling. Furthermore, the sampling time can be ignored as long as equilibrium has been attained. In <b>Paper II</b>, SPME under equilibrium conditions was investigated and evaluated for organophosphate triester vapours. Since temperature and humidity are closely associated with the distribution constant a simple study of the effect of these parameters was performed. The obtained distribution constants were used to determine the air levels in a common indoor environment. SPME and parallel active sampling on filters yielded similar results, indicating that the detected compounds were almost entirely associated with the vapour phase To apply dynamic SPME method in the field a sampler device, which enables controlled linear airflow rates to be applied, was constructed and evaluated (<b>Paper III</b>). This device was developed for application of SPME and active sampling in parallel. A GC/PICI-MS/MS method was developed and used in combination with active sampling of organophosphate triesters in indoor air (<b>Paper IV</b>). The combination of MS/MS and the soft ionization achieved with methanol as reagent gas yielded high selectivity and detection limits comparable to those provided by GC with nitrogen-phosphorus detection (NPD). The method limit of detection, when sampling 1.5 m3 of air, was in the range 0.1-1.4 ng m-3. In <b>Paper V</b>, the developed MS method was used in combination with SPME for indoor air measurements. The levels detected in the investigated indoor environments range from a few ng to μg m-3. Tris(2-chloropropyl) phosphate was detected at a concentration as high as 7 μg m-3 in a newly rebuilt lecture room.

Organophosphate hydrolase (OPH, EC 3.1.8.1) is a bacterial enzyme with a broad spectrum of potential substrates that include organophosphorus pesticides, herbicides, and chemical warfare agents. OPH has been expressed successfully in bacterial, fungal, and insect cell culture systems; however, none of these systems produces amounts of enzyme suitable for applications outside of the research laboratory. Therefore, a transgenic Zea mays L. (maize) system was developed to express OPH as an alternate to the current OPH expression systems. The bacterial gene encoding the OPH protein was optimized for transcriptional and translational expression in maize. The optimized gene was inserted into the maize genome under the control of embryo specific, endosperm specific, and constitutive plant promoters. Select transformants were analyzed for the expression of OPH. Expression was observed in the seeds of plants transformed with each of the three constructs with the highest expression observed with the embryo specific and constitutive promoter constructs. The highest OPH expressing lines of transgenic maize had expression levels higher than those reported for the E. coli expression system. OPH was purified from transgenic maize seed and analyzed for posttranslational modification and kinetic properties. OPH was observed to undergo a glycosylation event when expressed in maize that yielded at least two forms of OPH homogolous dimer. The glycosylated form of OPH bound tightly to the Concanavalin A sepharose and remained active after months of storage at room temperature. OPH activity was checked against a number of organophosphate herbicides. Enzymatic activity was observed against the herbicide Amiprophos-methyl and kinetic properties were measured. Enzymatic activity was also tested against the organophosphate Haloxon. Transgenic maize callus, leaf, and seed tissue could be screened for the presence of the optimized opd gene by enzymatic activity. Comparison of the growth of transgenic and control callus on media containing organophosphates showed that the transgenic callus was resistant to the herbicidal effects of haloxon. Transgenic plants expressing OPH were also resistant to the herbicide bensulide when compared to control plants. This indicates that OPH can be used as a screenable marker in plant systems and may be a potential scorable marker system as well.

Uranium contaminations of the subsurface in the vicinity of nuclear materials processing sites pose a health risk as the uranyl ion in its oxidized state, U(VI), is highly mobile in aquifers. Current remediation strategies such as pump and treat or excavation are invasive and expensive to implement on a large scale. In situ bioremediation represents an alternative strategy that uses the ability of local microbial communities to immobilize contaminants and is actively studied for uranium remediation. The immobilization of U(VI) in groundwater is achieved either by bioreduction to solid uraninite (U(IV)), adsorption to the soil matrix, or non-reductive precipitation of uranium phosphate minerals through the activity of bacterial phosphatases. Bioreduction has been widely studied for remediation of the saturated zone, as anaerobic conditions typically prevail in these environments. This process is only efficient at circumneutral pH, however, and the end product uraninite is unstable under aerobic conditions or in the presence of manganese oxides, nitrite, or even freshly formed iron oxides. Although non-reductive biomineralization of uranium catalyzed by bacterial phosphatase activity successfully removes uranium from the vadose zone, further studies are needed to assess the ability of microbial communities to hydrolyze organophosphate compounds in the saturated zone where oxygen is often depleted and uranium bioreduction may be significant. To investigate this process under anaerobic conditions, low pH soil samples from a uranium contaminated site at the Oak Ridge Field Research Center were incubated anaerobically in flow through reactors in the presence of exogenic organophosphate compounds to stimulate the natural microbial communities in the original soil matrix. Aqueous uranium was injected continuously in the reactors to determine the fraction of uranium removed during these incubations. The reactors amended with organophosphate produced inorganic phosphate in the effluent, suggesting that bacterial phosphatase activity can be stimulated even in anaerobic environments at low pH. Removal of U(VI) in a control amended with organophosphate over a short time period was similar compared to reactors amended with organophosphate for long times suggesting that adsorption may also play a role in U(VI) immobilization. A sequential extraction technique was optimized to differentiate the fraction of uranium loosely adsorbed and the fraction of uranium precipitated as phosphate minerals and batch adsorption experiments were performed to obtain thermodynamic parameters that could be used to predict the fraction of U(VI) adsorbed onto the soil matrix. Results indicated that 100% uranium adsorption was favorable from pH 5 to 10 (without the presence of phosphate), and that most of the solid phase uranium was extracted in the step defined for the strongly adsorbed/uranium phosphate mineral in both long and short-term amended reactors. Overall, these results demonstrate that the biomineralization of uranium phosphate minerals is a viable bioremediation strategy in both the vadose and saturated zones of aquifers at both low and high pH, provided an organophosphate source is available.

Organophosphate and phthalate esters are polymer additives that are frequently found in air and dust in indoor environments. This thesis describes the development and application of air sampling and selective mass spectrometric (MS) determination of these two compound groups. It also describes the sampling and screening of these compounds in indoor air and dust from different environments and the development and evaluation of a method for the extraction and determination of these compounds in indoor dust. An air sampling method previously used for air sampling of only organophosphate esters, is here demonstrated to be applicable for simultaneous sampling of both phthalate and organophosphate esters. Selective detection using tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) showed good results for simultaneous determination of organophosphate and phthalate esters in air. The high selectivity of this technique was especially advantageous when analyzing dust. Comparison of chemical profiles of the organophosphate ester between indoor environments including daycare centers, offices and private homes differed between the types of locations while the phthalate profiles were rather similar. Comparison of concentration levels of these compounds in multi-storey apartment buildings classified as either high or low risk “sick” buildings could not differentiate the two classes of buildings. Further, the studies also points out some potential sources of organophosphate and phthalate esters in these indoor environments. In general the levels of phthalate esters were consistently higher than the levels of organophosphate esters both in air and in dust. Phthalate and organophosphate esters were also determined in a dust standard reference material; seventeen of the targeted compounds were quantified out of which ten had not previously been reported for this reference material. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Submitted. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>