Une question centrale des recherches sur la lecture concerne la nature séquentielle ou parallèle de l’identification des mots pendant la lecture de phrases. L’hypothèse dominante postule que l’attention spatiale est allouée à un seul mot à la fois, et qu’avec cette contrainte, l’identification des mots doit forcément s’opérer de manière séquentielle. Cependant, un certain nombre de résultats suggèrent, au contraire, que l’attention spatiale peut être allouée à plusieurs mots à la fois, de manière distribuée. Cette attention disbribuée pourrait permettre l’identification en parallèle de plusieurs mots de manière simultanée, et les travaux présentés dans cette thèse cherchent à déterminer la viabilité de cette hypothèse. Notamment, nos travaux visent à préciser le niveau de traitement (visuel, orthographique, lexical, sémantique ou syntaxique) permis par cette attention distribuée. / This thesis addresses one of the most hotly debated issues in reading research: Are words processed serially or in parallel during reading? One could argue that this is primarily a question of visuo-spatial attention: is attention distributed across multiple words during reading? The research presented here suggests that attention can indeed be allocated to multiple words at once. It is further established that attention is a key factor driving (sub-lexical) orthographic processing. The next question, then, is whether multiple lexical representations can be activated in parallel. This thesis comprises a wealth of evidence for parallel lexical activation: firstly we have found that readers activate embedded words (e.g., ‘use’ in ‘houses’) alongside the word that is to be recognized, indicating that parallel lexical processing would occur even if readers could effectively focus their attention on single words. Moreover, we have found that semantic and syntactic categorization decisions about foveal target words are influenced by the semantic and syntactic aspects of surrounding words, even when all these words are presented for a duration shorter than the average time needed to recognize a single word. Hence, given that readers’ attention is spread across multiple words and that multiple lexical representations can be activated in parallel, it seems reasonable to claim that the reading system is in principle a parallel processing system.

The forest industry needs an up-to-date overview of certain areas of a forest, to either estimate damages after a storm or assess its overall health. Today, the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) have exploded. Almost anyone can own one and they are very easy to operate. They are often equipped with accurate sensors and cameras that can be used for several productive applications. This paper investigates if a UAV equipped with positional sensors and a high resolution camera can be used for taking aerial photographs and together with a mobile devices create a coherent orthophoto in real- or near real-time. Three different seam stitching algorithms are tested and evaluated based on speed, accuracy and visual appearance. The results of using a DJI Matrice 100 UAV together with an iPad Air is presented both qualitative and quantitative.

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Notre recherche sur la genèse orthographique est descriptive etpraxéologique. Les phénomènes sémiographiques ayant contribué à opacifierle principe phonographique et à autonomiser l'écrit, nous interrogeons lesapproches de l'orthographe phonocentrées. Nous montrons qu'une seule desdescriptions linguistiques parues entre 1967 et 1988 est exploitéedidactiquement. Phonocentrée, elle s’accorde aux pratiques d’éveil inscritesdans le plan Rouchette et aux approches successivistes de la lecturesyllabiques et de la grammaire traditionnelle. Nous postulons que ledéveloppement de l'orthographe aurait provoqué une rupture épistémologiquequi peut former obstacle pour l'enseignement.Pour interroger l'articulation entre le développement individuel et les conditionsd'apprentissage, nous intégrons le concept d’habitus dans le cadre descommunautés discursives disciplinaires scolaires. Nous pensons que ledéveloppement de schèmes orthographiques est corrélé aux pratiques delecture et d'écriture proposées aux élèves ; la mise en place récurrente etprolongée d'une activité scripturale phonographique pourrait figer des schèmesliés aux conversions phonie-graphie.Nous observons comment des enseignantes de CP, instituent une communautédiscursive cripturale orthographique en focalisant l'activité sur le mot et initientla genèse orthographique par la valorisation de manières d'agir fédérées par leprincipe d'hétérographie distinctive. Les élèves, observés pendant deux ans,s'approprient les scénarios proposés. La secondarisation orthographique deleur habitus scriptural primaire est marquée par l'émergence de dispositionsaccordées aux règles de l'écriture orthographique. / Our research about orthographic genesis is descriptive andpraxeologic. Semiographic phenomena contribute to opacify the phonographicprinciple and to autonomize writing. So we interrogate phonocentric approachesof orthography. We show that among the four linguistic descriptions presentbetween 1967 and 1988, only one is being used in didactics today. Because ofits phonocentrism, it is in accordance with child awareness practices asstipulated in the Rouchette plan and with consecutive approaches of syllabicreading methods and traditionnel grammar teaching. We postulate thatorthography development may have provoked an epistemologistic breach. It isour opinion that this breach could be an obstacle as for teaching.In order to question the articulation between individual development and sociallearning conditions, the concept of habitus is integrated in the framework ofeducational discursive communities. We believe that orthographic schematadevelopment is correlated with the reading and writing practices proposed topupils. The setting up of recurrent and prolonged phonographic scripturalactivity may immobilise schemata linked to the phonic-graphic conversion.We observe how teachers in the first year of primary school institute anorthographic scriptural educational discursive community focalising activity onwords and initiating the orthographic genesis by bringing value to orthographicmanners brought about by the distinctive heterographic principle. The pupils,observed for two years, appropriate the proposed patterns about word's usage.The orthographic secondarisation of their scriptural primary habitus ischaracterised by the emergence of dispositions accorded to the rule oforthographic writing.

Adults with language impairment have poor language skills, but may or may not have reading deficits. For those identified with literacy difficulties as children, deficits in the skills related to sublexical level decoding skills can persist into adulthood. Decoding deficits, current or remediated, would implicate the sublexical interaction of orthography and phonology. In addition, the heterogeneous reading profiles of adults with language impairment provide an opportunity to examine whether the deficits in this bidirectional link between orthography and phonology are related to reading deficit specifically or language impairment globally. Sixty adults, 30 with language impairment and 30 with typical language, participated in this study. Nonword stimuli, orthogonally varied based on orthographic and phonological neighborhood density, were presented in two sublexical tasks, nonword repetition and nonword spelling. The experiment revealed a pattern of similar responses for adults with and without language impairment. However, adults with impaired language had significantly poorer performance on both the nonword repetition task and the nonword spelling task. Additional analyses indicated that both language and literacy measures predicted the overall performance on the orthogonally varied nonword repetition and nonword spelling tasks. This study highlights the existence of a bidirectional influence between phonological and orthographic processing. For adults with language impairment it appears that this bidirectional link is intact at the sublexical level.

We examined the relationship between orthographic processing and spelling in French immersion children. Study 1 included 148 first graders and they were assessed on orthographic processing and spelling in English and French. In Study 2, we followed 69 second graders for two years. Orthographic processing and spelling in English and French were administered in second and third grade. In Study 3, we analyzed the spelling errors made by the third graders in Study 2. In Study 1, we found a within-language relationship in English and French between orthographic processing and spelling. Cross-language transfer from French orthographic processing to English spelling was also observed. In Study 2, Grade 2 English spelling predicted gains in Grade 3 English and French orthographic processing. Study 3 showed that children made transfer errors when spelling in English and French. Overall, the current research highlights the importance of orthographic processing and spelling in French immersion children.

The major aim of the thesis is to study the development of French spelling since the 16th century with main focus on the diacritical mark accent circonflexe. The individual centuries are analysed step by step from the linguistic perspective with the historical context addition. The most significant pieces dealing with the French spelling from the period of a formation of spelling rules to the current period of spelling reforms and their consequences in 2016 are analysed. This thesis focuses on the development of the mark accent circonflexe in detail. The main intention of the thesis is to describe the introduction of this mark to the French spelling, its struggle for survival, an extension and gaining its importance till its official status when it becomes the French spelling icon threatened by the reform of spelling in 1990 proposing the restriction of this mark. The research part in the form of a questionnaire is added to the master thesis. The opinion of native francophone people on the reform of spelling, especially on accent circonflexe is under examination.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / As normas ortogrÃficas sÃo convenÃÃes sociais criadas para facilitar a comunicaÃÃo escrita. A escola tem o papel de desenvolver atividades que promovam a apropriaÃÃo das regras pelos alunos, e ao professor de lÃngua portuguesa cabe a tarefa de incluir em suas prÃticas de ensino o estudo da correta notaÃÃo da lÃngua escrita, visto que os conhecimentos ortogrÃficos tÃm relevÃncia social e sÃo necessÃrios para o competente uso da lÃngua. No entanto, os aprendizes demonstram dificuldades na ortografia, mesmo nas sÃries finais do ensino fundamental. Muitas dessas dificuldades estÃo relacionadas à oralidade, nÃo raro, seus textos apresentam diversas palavras grafadas conforme sÃo produzidas na oralidade. Observa-se que os alunos nÃo tÃm o domÃnio do sistema ortogrÃfico e desconhecem as diferenÃas entre lÃngua escrita e lÃngua oral. à necessÃrio, portanto, que um trabalho pedagÃgico seja desenvolvido pelo professor para que os estudantes superem tais dificuldades. Assim, este trabalho tem como objetivo o tratamento de dois problemas ortogrÃficos especÃficos e inter-relacionados: o apagamento do -r em coda final de verbos no infinitivo, erro ortogrÃfico de fonte fonolÃgica e a inserÃÃo desse rÃtico ao final de palavras formando, indevidamente, o infinitivo verbal, o que configura uma hipercorreÃÃo. Tais problemas ortogrÃficos foram os mais frequentes â nos textos de alunos de duas turmas do 8 ano do ensino fundamental II â analisados neste estudo, daà a necessidade de uma intervenÃÃo. Para a fundamentaÃÃo teÃrica deste estudo, foram considerados, principalmente, alguns processos fonolÃgicos apresentados por Seara, Nunes e Lazzarotto-VolcÃo (2015), as reflexÃes e pesquisas de Cagliari (2001, 2002b), bem como, os estudos de Morais (2007a, 2007b, 2007c, 2008), Bortoni-Ricardo (2004a, 2004b), Bortoni-Ricardo e Oliveira (2013), Callou, Serra e Cunha (2015). Trata-se de uma pesquisa-aÃÃo de carÃter quanti-qualitativo. Primeiramente, foi realizado um diagnÃstico com aplicaÃÃo de redaÃÃes para a identificaÃÃo dos erros mais recorrentes nos textos dos alunos da primeira turma; e um ditado de frases para verificaÃÃo, apenas, dos erros em foco, na segunda turma, visto que tais problemas jà haviam sido selecionados a partir do diagnÃstico inicial na turma 1. Para o tratamento, foram realizadas intervenÃÃes pedagÃgicas periÃdicas, dentro do tempo pedagÃgico destinado Ãs aulas de lÃngua portuguesa. As atividades aplicadas foram baseadas na reflexÃo da escrita com o apoio de textos nos diversos gÃneros. Os resultados apontaram melhoria considerÃvel na escrita correta dos verbos no infinito. Chegou-se à conclusÃo de que atividades ortogrÃficas planejadas e aplicadas com regularidade geram resultados positivos. / Orthographic norms are social conventions designed to facilitate written communication. The school has the role of developing activities that promote the appropriation of the rules by the students, and the Portuguese teacher is responsible for including in their teaching practices the study of the correct notation the written language, since knowledge of spelling has social relevance and are necessary for the competent use of the language. However, learners show difficulties in spelling, even in the final grades of middle school. Many of these difficulties are related to oral language, often their texts present several words written as they are pronounded. It is clear that the students do not have the mastery of the orthographic system and they do not know the differences between written language and oral language. It is necessary, therefore, that a pedagogical work be developed by the teacher so that the students overcome these difficulties. Thus, this work has as objective the treatment of two specific and interrelated orthographic problems: deletion of -r in the final codas of verbs in the infinitive, orthographic error of phonological source and the insertion of this rhotic at the end of words forming, unduly, the verbal infinitive, which constitutes an overgeneralization of the rule. Such spelling problems were the most frequent - in the texts of students from two classes of the 8th grade of middle school - analyzed in this study, hence the need for an intervention. For the theoretical basis of this study, some phonological processes presented by Seara, Nunes and Lazzarotto-VolcÃo (2015), the reflections and researches of Cagliari (2001, 2002b), as well as the studies of Morais (2007a, 2007b, 2007c, 2008), Bortoni-Ricardo (2004a, 2004b), Bortoni-Ricardo and Oliveira (2013), Callou, Serra and Cunha (2015) were considered. This study is a quantitative-qualitative action research. Firstly, a diagnosis was conducted with the use of essays to identify the most recurrent errors in the texts of the students in the first class; and a dictation of sentences to verify only the errors in focus in the second group, since such problems had already been selected from the initial diagnosis in class 1. For the treatment, periodic pedagogical interventions were carried out within the pedagogical time allotted to the Portuguese lessons. The activities were based on the reflection of writing with the support of texts in the different genres. The results pointed out considerable improvement in the correct writing of verbs in the infinitive. It was concluded that regularly scheduled orthographic activities generate positive results.