<p>This study investigated the extent to which memories of parental rearing were related to the quality of parent and peer attachment, and whether parent and peer attachment were correlated with social anxiety feelings among 510 Chinese high school students. Memories of parental rearing were measured by the My Memories of Upbringing for Children (EMBU-C), The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) was used to assess attachment quality and social anxiety was assessed by Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A) with adolescents in two age-groups. Consistent with findings from Western samples, the analyses revealed significant associations between attachment and memories of parental warm emotions as well as with memories of parental rejection. Attachment scores were related to level of social anxiety. Moreover, peer attachment was stronger associated with the adolescent¡¯s social anxiety feelings than parent attachment. However, the age differences were found across each measure scale. Furthermore, fathers showed a moderately more important role in the adolescent¡¯s social development than mothers. The findings indicate that in spite of considerable consistency with findings from Western studies, child-parent attachment in Chinese adolescents is also influenced by culture-specific practices that shape the youth-parent relationships and their meaning to the child.</p>

This study investigated the extent to which memories of parental rearing were related to the quality of parent and peer attachment, and whether parent and peer attachment were correlated with social anxiety feelings among 510 Chinese high school students. Memories of parental rearing were measured by the My Memories of Upbringing for Children (EMBU-C), The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) was used to assess attachment quality and social anxiety was assessed by Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A) with adolescents in two age-groups. Consistent with findings from Western samples, the analyses revealed significant associations between attachment and memories of parental warm emotions as well as with memories of parental rejection. Attachment scores were related to level of social anxiety. Moreover, peer attachment was stronger associated with the adolescent¡¯s social anxiety feelings than parent attachment. However, the age differences were found across each measure scale. Furthermore, fathers showed a moderately more important role in the adolescent¡¯s social development than mothers. The findings indicate that in spite of considerable consistency with findings from Western studies, child-parent attachment in Chinese adolescents is also influenced by culture-specific practices that shape the youth-parent relationships and their meaning to the child.

<p>The general objective of this thesis was to examine aspects of adolescents perceived interpersonal relations, in view of the association between adolescents’ interpersonal problems and self-concepts, and considering influential factors such as behavioural problems, depression, perceptions of parental rearing styles, type of relationships and sex. All of the studies examined participants from the four-year longitudinal research project in Umeå, which was designed to investigate the psychic health and social context of adolescents with psychological and antisocial problems (Armelius & Hägglöf, 1998), except for the normal adolescents in study I, who took part in a project with purpose to determine norms for an intake interview that is used for adolescents in different settings in Sweden. Study I addressed the impact of type of relationship on adolescents interpersonal behaviour, and the results were discussed in terms of interpersonal theory and the complementarity principle. Study II investigated the association between self-concept and interpersonal problems in normal adolescents. Different interpersonal problems were systematically related to three self-concept patterns, and showed the importance of considering the combination of self-love and self-autonomy to understand interpersonal problems in adolescents. In study III the associations between self-concept, and interpersonal problems were investigated, also considering depression as a factor, in a group of adolescents with conduct problems. This study revealed sex differences: boys’ interpersonal problems mainly were associated with self-control, an imbalance between self control and autonomy, and depression, whereas girls’ interpersonal problems mainly were associated with low self-love and depression. Study IV examined the relationship between memories of perceived parenting styles and interpersonal problems. Also in this study, sex differences were shown. It was found that for boys the perceived parenting styles of the fathers had the strongest associations to interpersonal problems, and for girls the perceived parenting styles of the mothers had the strongest associations to interpersonal problems.</p>

The general objective of this thesis was to examine aspects of adolescents perceived interpersonal relations, in view of the association between adolescents’ interpersonal problems and self-concepts, and considering influential factors such as behavioural problems, depression, perceptions of parental rearing styles, type of relationships and sex. All of the studies examined participants from the four-year longitudinal research project in Umeå, which was designed to investigate the psychic health and social context of adolescents with psychological and antisocial problems (Armelius &amp; Hägglöf, 1998), except for the normal adolescents in study I, who took part in a project with purpose to determine norms for an intake interview that is used for adolescents in different settings in Sweden. Study I addressed the impact of type of relationship on adolescents interpersonal behaviour, and the results were discussed in terms of interpersonal theory and the complementarity principle. Study II investigated the association between self-concept and interpersonal problems in normal adolescents. Different interpersonal problems were systematically related to three self-concept patterns, and showed the importance of considering the combination of self-love and self-autonomy to understand interpersonal problems in adolescents. In study III the associations between self-concept, and interpersonal problems were investigated, also considering depression as a factor, in a group of adolescents with conduct problems. This study revealed sex differences: boys’ interpersonal problems mainly were associated with self-control, an imbalance between self control and autonomy, and depression, whereas girls’ interpersonal problems mainly were associated with low self-love and depression. Study IV examined the relationship between memories of perceived parenting styles and interpersonal problems. Also in this study, sex differences were shown. It was found that for boys the perceived parenting styles of the fathers had the strongest associations to interpersonal problems, and for girls the perceived parenting styles of the mothers had the strongest associations to interpersonal problems.

Background: In a rapidly changing and increasingly interconnected world, the issue of mental health and well-being among adolescents is one of the important research topics. However, there have been few studies amongst Japanese adolescents that have been published in international journals. Objectives: (I) to make a comparison in selfconcept between healthy adolescents in Japan and Sweden, (II) to address the influence of perceived parental rearing on self-concept and mental health problems among Japanese adolescents, (III) to investigate contributions of attachment and self-concept to mental health problems reported by Japanese adolescents, (IV) to address a comparison of mental health problems and self reported competence in adolescents from Greece, Japan, Russia, and Sweden. Methods: The following self-report instruments were used: Self- Description Questionnaire II (Marsh, 1992), Actual-Ideal Questionnaire (Nishikawa, 2003), Self-Description Questionnaire IIShort (Marsh, Ellis, Parada, Richards, &amp; Heubeck, 2005), Youth Self- Report (Achenbach, 1991), Attachment Questionnaire- for Children (Sharpe et al., 1998), and Egna Minnen Beträffande Uppfostran (my memories of child upbringing) for Children (Muris, Meesters, &amp; van Brakel, 2003). The participants for Paper I were adolescents aged 14 and 15 from Japan (n=144) and Sweden (n=96). One hundred ninety three Japanese students between the ages of 15-19 participated in Paper II and 228 students for Paper III. The participants for Paper IV were 812 healthy adolescents between 15 and 17 years of age from Greece (n=152), Japan (n=219), Russia (n=159), and Sweden (n=282).  Results: Paper I showed that Japanese students reported less positive self-concept compared to the Swedish counterparts. The results were discussed in terms of different response style and modesty in Japanese culture. Paper II showed that dysfunctional parental rearing and insecure peer attachment were associated with negative self-concept and more mental health problems. A unique influence on mental health problems from parent-adolescent relationships depending on the gender of parents and adolescents was also found. Paper III showed a mediating role of self-concept in influencing the relationships between attachment style and Internalizing Problems. Paper IV indicated rather small differences across countries in the syndrome scales. Japanese and Swedish adolescents tended to score lower than Russian and Greek counterparts. Some cultural specific syndromes were found. Conclusion: These results reported in this thesis present a general view of Japanese adolescents’ self-concept and the influence of interpersonal relationships in mental health problems assessed by Western self-report instruments. When being compared with other countries, cultural background and response style must be taken into account.

The main objective of this study was to examine the vulnerability factors of Obsessive Compulsive Symptomatology (OCS) in a non-clinical sample. On the basis of Salkovskis&rsquo / cognitive model of OCD, the present study aimed to investigate the role of perceived parental rearing behaviors, responsibility attitudes, and life events in predicting OCS. Furthermore, the mediator role of responsibility attitudes in the relationship between perceived parental rearing behaviors and OCS was examined. Finally, the specificity of these variables to OCS was evaluated by examining the relationship of the same variables to depression and trait anxiety. Analysis of covariance results showed that subjects with higher OCS scores perceived their mothers&rsquo / and fathers&rsquo / rearing behaviors as more overprotective than the subjects with lower OCS scores. The results of the regression analysis showed that perceived mother overprotection, responsibility attitudes and life events significantly predicted OCS. Furthermore, responsibility attitudes mediated the relationship between perceived mother overprotection and OCS. The predictive role of perceived mother overprotection was found to be OCS specific. On the other hand, for depression, perceived mother rejection and father emotional warmth, and for trait anxiety, perceived mother emotional warmth had significant predictive effects. While responsibility attitudes were found to be a common predictor for OCS and trait anxiety, its mediator role was OCS specific. OCS, depression and trait anxiety were all significantly predicted by life events. The results of the study were discussed within the relevant literature, and limitations of the study, suggestions for future studies, and clinical implications of the findings were presented.

Background: Recalled parental rearing behavior is one of the factors influencing the strength of resilience. However, it is unclear whether resilience is a relatively stable personality trait or has a relational character whose protective strength changes over the course of life. Therefore, the association between recalled parental rearing and resilience as well as symptoms of anxiety and depression was investigated in respect to age and gender. Methods: N = 4,782 healthy subjects aged 14-92 (M = 48.1 years) were selected by the random-route sampling method. In this sample, an ultra-short form of the Recalled Parental Rearing Behavior Questionnaire, the German short version of the resilience scale, and two screening instruments for depression and anxiety (PHQ-2, GAD-2) were filled out. Structural equation modelling was used to analyze the data estimated with the maximum likelihood method approach. Results: The data revealed that rejection and punishment were clearly associated with lower resilience. Moreover, resilience had a strong connection to the symptoms of anxiety and depression. Resilience had the same quality of association in both men and women with respect to anxiety and depression. Furthermore, the effect of resilience did not vary across several age groups even though challenges may differ over a lifetime. Conclusion: Recalled parental rearing behavior such as rejection and punishment as well as control and overprotection exert a significant association on the strength of resilience. Resilience has an effect independent of gender and does not affect people of different age groups differently.

本研究旨在探討人口變項、父母教養行為、依附關係與雙胞胎的個人化之關係。本研究以76位成年雙胞胎為研究參與者（男性31人，女性45人），所使用的工具包括「雙胞胎個人化量表」、「雙胞胎父母教養行為量表」及「雙胞胎依附關係量表」。資料分析以描述統計、單因子單變量變異數分析、單因子多變量變異數分析及多元迴歸等統計方法進行分析。 本研究的主要發現如下： 一、 在現況方面，本研究之成年雙胞胎在個人化及依附關係的的得分偏高。在父親及母親教養行為的類別以父母親使用較多「情感支持」行為的成年雙胞胎居多；依附關係的類別則以屬於「安全天堂」及「趨近尋求」等安全依附關係的成年雙胞胎人數最多。 二、 不同人口變項的成年雙胞胎，其個人化程度有差異。不同年齡、雙胞胎本身的社經地位在個人化的有顯著差異。而不同性別、父母的社經地位、胎性、雙胞胎排行、家中手足總數的成年雙胞胎在個人化則沒有顯著差異。 三、 經歷不同父親及母親教養行為的成年雙胞胎，其個人化的程度有差異，即父親及母親「情感支持」教養行為較多，整體「個人化」及「分化」的程度較高；父親「拒絕」教養行為使用較多，則「獨立」的程度較低。 四、 不同依附關係的成年雙胞胎，其個人化的程度沒有差異。 五、 父親「情感支持」教養行為、母親「情感支持」教養行為、「趨近尋求」依附關係、「安全天堂」依附關係，對個人化的表現有正向預測效果。其中以父親「情感支持」行為的預測效果最好。 六、 父親「拒絕」教養行為、父親「一致性」教養行為、母親「拒絕」教養行為、母親「一致性」教養行為、「分離抗拒」依附關係對個人化的表現有負向預測效果。其中以父親「拒絕」教養行為為主要預測變項，其次是母親「拒絕」教養行為。 最後，根據本研究之主要發現提出若干建議，以供雙胞胎父母與未來研究之參考。 關鍵詞：成年雙胞胎、個人化、父母教養行為、依附關係 / The main purpose of this study was to explore the relationships between adult twins’ parental rearing behaviors, attachment relationship, demographic variables and their individuality. The participants were 76 adult twins (31 males and 45 females). The employed instruments included Individuality Inventory for Twins, Parental Rearing Behavior Inventory for Twins, and Attachment Relationship Inventory for Twins. The applied analysis methods were Descriptive Statistics, One-way Multivariate Analysis of Variance, One-way Analysis of Variance, and Multiple Regression. The main findings of this study were as follows: 1. The adult twins in this study had an above-average level of individuality and attachment relationship. As for the categories, most twins belonged to the attachment of “safe heaven” and “proximity seeking,” and most twins belonged to the parental rearing behavior of “emotional warmth”. 2. The adult twins’ age and socioeconomic status had significant effects on their performance of individuality. However, the adults twins’ gender, zygosity, birth order of twins, number of siblings, and their parents’ socioeconomic status had no significant effects on their performance of individuality. 3. The adult twins who experienced different parental rearing behaviors had varied level of individuality. More specifically, those who experienced more parental behaviors of “emotional warmth” outperformed their counterparts in overall individuality and the index of “differentiation,” while those who experienced less “rejection” behaviors from their fathers outperformed their counterparts in the index of “independence”. 4. Adult twins with different attachment relationship did not differ in their performance of individuality. 5. Father’s and mother’s rearing behaviors of “emotional warmth” and the attachment of “proximity seeking” and “safe heaven,” especially father’s rearing behaviors of “emotional warmth,” could positively predict the adult twins’ performance of individuality. 6. Father’s and mother’s rearing behaviors of “rejection” and “consistency” and the attachment of “separation protest,” especially father’s rearing behaviors of “rejection,” could negatively predict the adult twins’ performance of individuality. Finally, after discussion, some suggestions were proposed for the parents of twins and future research. Keywords: Adult Twins, Individuality, Parental Rearing Behaviors, Attachment Relationship.

Background: Recalled parental rearing behavior is one of the factors influencing the strength of resilience. However, it is unclear whether resilience is a relatively stable personality trait or has a relational character whose protective strength changes over the course of life. Therefore, the association between recalled parental rearing and resilience as well as symptoms of anxiety and depression was investigated in respect to age and gender. Methods: N = 4,782 healthy subjects aged 14-92 (M = 48.1 years) were selected by the random-route sampling method. In this sample, an ultra-short form of the Recalled Parental Rearing Behavior Questionnaire, the German short version of the resilience scale, and two screening instruments for depression and anxiety (PHQ-2, GAD-2) were filled out. Structural equation modelling was used to analyze the data estimated with the maximum likelihood method approach. Results: The data revealed that rejection and punishment were clearly associated with lower resilience. Moreover, resilience had a strong connection to the symptoms of anxiety and depression. Resilience had the same quality of association in both men and women with respect to anxiety and depression. Furthermore, the effect of resilience did not vary across several age groups even though challenges may differ over a lifetime. Conclusion: Recalled parental rearing behavior such as rejection and punishment as well as control and overprotection exert a significant association on the strength of resilience. Resilience has an effect independent of gender and does not affect people of different age groups differently.

Diplomová práce se zabývá současnou podobou rodiny, jejími hodnotami, výchovnými přístupy, formami vzájemné komunikace, rodinného uspořádání a jejím vlivem na život a chování dítěte. Teoretická část vychází z odborné literatury věnující se oblastem rodinného života, dítěti a výchově. Postupně jsou v ní zpracována jednotlivá témata, která s rodinou a výchovou souvisejí (typy rodiny, funkce rodiny, výchovné styly atd.) Výzkumná část byla založena na kvalitativním přístupu, v jehož rámci byla provedena případová studie tří rodin s dětmi. Každá ze studií je podrobně rozpracována a odhaluje zákonitosti života a výchovných přístupů v současné rodině. Z výsledků této studie vyplývá, že současní rodiče dávají přednost demokratickému až liberálnímu stylu výchovy, který je mnohem náročnější, než po staletí užívaný autoritativní přístup. A že větší výchovný úspěch přijde pravděpodobně tam, kde je v rodině emocionálně pozitivní prostředí, rodiče jsou starostliví a stanovují jasná pravidla. Klíčová slova: rodina, rodiče, výchovné přístupy rodičů, rodinné prostředí, dítě, dětství, přístup k dítěti, výchova