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Los mercados internacionales de aceites comestibles se caracterizan por la competitividad y las exigencias de calidad, lo que localmente demanda mejores métodos para la caracterización y el control de calidad de materias primas y productos, la optimización de las tecnologías y condiciones de procesamiento y almacenamiento, y el desarrollo de productos o procesos alternativos que permitan el mejor aprovechamiento de los subproductos. El complejo aceitero argentino es uno de los sectores de la industria alimenticia que ha evidenciado un gran crecimiento durante los últimos años, habiendo incrementado significativamente su capacidad de procesamiento. El aceite de girasol es, en nuestro país, el segundo en importancia después del de soja, teniendo en cuenta sus características de sabor suave y su tenue color amarillo, resulta uno de los preferidos para su empleo doméstico o industrial. La extracción por solvente es la etapa fundamental en la obtención de aceites vegetales a partir de semillas oleaginosas, es un proceso complejo debido a las características de la estructura celular del vegetal y a que junto a los triglicéridos son extraídos los componentes minoritarios. En nuestro país la industria oleaginosa destina la mayor parte de su producción a la exportación, por lo que las exigencias de calidad que enfrentan requieren de la optimización de los procesos de fabricación y un conocimiento detallado de las variables que los afectan. Es por ello que los estudios realizados en esta área tienen una aplicación inmediata en la industria local, y son de gran importancia tanto científica como técnica. Los objetivos de esta tesis son: 1. Estudiar el proceso de extracción por solvente de aceites vegetales, específicamente aceite de girasol, considerando la influencia de los compuestos minoritarios en el procesamiento de la materia prima y la calidad del aceite obtenido. 2. Estudiar la extracción de ceras de girasol mediante el lavado de la semilla evaluando la conveniencia del uso de distintos solventes y el efecto del tiempo de contacto y la temperatura. A continuación se detalla la organización del trabajo realizado. En cada uno de los capítulos se describen resultados, conclusiones y bibliografía consultada. En el capítulo 1 se realiza una descripción del panorama mundial de la demanda de aceite de girasol y de los subproductos del sistema oleaginoso. Se analiza brevemente la producción de aceite de girasol en Argentina y se plantean los objetivos específicos de la tesis. En el capítulo 2 se describe al Helianthus annuus L. y la composición de aceite analizando compuestos mayoritarios y minoritarios (tocoferoles, fosfolípidos y ceras). Se exhibe una breve reseña del procesamiento de las semillas de girasol para la extracción del aceite y de los procesos de refinamiento del aceite crudo. El capítulo 3 describe las materias primas utilizadas y presenta la metodología experimental empleada. Se detallan las técnicas utilizadas para la cuantificación de los compuestos minoritarios de interés que contribuyen a la calidad y estabilidad del aceite (fosfolípidos, tocoferoles y ceras) En el capítulo 4 se caracteriza la materia prima. Se analizan las características generales y distribución de tamaño de las semillas utilizadas en el estudio de extractabilidad de ceras, así como la distribución en la semilla de los compuestos menores (fosfolípidos, tocoferoles y ceras). En cuanto a las muestras procedentes del proceso de extracción de aceite se presenta un análisis del contenido de humedad, aceite y compuestos minoritarios. En el capítulo 5 se estudia la extracción de ceras de girasol mediante el lavado de las semillas, evaluando la conveniencia del uso de distintos solventes y el efecto del tiempo de contacto y la temperatura. Se analiza también el efecto de este método de eliminación de ceras sobre la aptitud al descascarado que presentan las semillas. En el capítulo 6 se exponen las curvas de extracción del aceite de expellers de girasol y de los compuestos minoritarios (tocoferoles, fosfolípidos y ceras), obtenidas en un sistema batch, a diferentes temperaturas. El objetivo fue obtener curvas de extracción y la aplicación de un modelo para la determinación de los coeficientes de difusividad efectivos. En el capítulo 7 se presenta un análisis de la variación de la composición del aceite y calidad del mismo simulando las distintas etapas de un extractor industrial en estado estacionario. La información obtenida de las curvas cinéticas del aceite y de los compuestos menores se incorporó en un programa de simulación teniendo en cuenta varias etapas de extracción. El capítulo 8 resume las conclusiones generales y propone algunas futuras líneas de investigación. / The international markets of edible oils are characterized by the competitiveness and the demands of quality. This fact locally requires of improved methods for the characterization and the quality control of raw material and products, the optimization of the technologies and the processing and storage conditions, and the development of products or alternative processes that allow the best by-products use. The Argentinean oily complex is one of the sectors of the food industry that has evidenced a huge growth during the last years, having increased its processing capacity significantly. The sunflower oil is, in our country, the second in importance after soya oil. Due to its soft flavor and delicate yellow color, it is preferred domestic or industrial use. The solvent extraction is the fundamental stage in the vegetable-oil production from oilseeds. It is a complex process due to both the characteristics of the cellular structure and the extraction of minor compounds together with the triglycerides. In our country, oil enterprises assign a high percentage of its production for export. In this way, they confront a quality demand that needs of the process optimization together with a depth knowledge of the variables that affect the oil extraction. That is the reason of why the studies carried out in this area have an immediate application in the local industry, and they are of great scientifical and technical relevance. The objectives of this thesis are: 1. Study the solvent extraction process of vegetable oils, specifically sunflower oil, considering the influence of the minor compounds in the processing of the raw material and the quality of the obtained oil. 2. Study the extraction of sunflower waxes through the seed washing, evaluating the suitability of the use of different solvents and the effect of contact time and temperature. The organization of the work is given below. Results, conclusions and reviewed bibliography are described in each chapter. Chapter 1 shows the world demand of sunflower oil and their by-products. The production of sunflower oil in Argentina is analyzed shortly and the specific objectives of the thesis are outlined. Chapter 2 describes the Helianthus annuus L. specie, and the composition of its oil analyzing majority and minority compounds (tocopherols, phospholipids and waxes). A brief review about the oil extraction process and its refining is exhibited. Chapter 3 gives a general description of the raw materials and describes the experimental methodology used in this thesis. In addition, the techniques used for the quantification of minor compounds that contribute to the quality and stability of the oil (phospholipids, tocopherols and waxes) are detailed. Chapter 4 characterizes the raw materials. The main characteristics and size distribution of the seeds used in the waxes extractability study as well as the distribution of the minor compounds (phospholipids, tocopherols and waxes) in the seed are analyzed, an analysis of the humidity, oil and minor-compounds contents of the samples coming from the oil extraction process is presented. Chapter 5 studies the extraction of sunflower waxes through the washing of the seeds, evaluating the convenience of the use of different solvents and the effect of contact time and temperature. It is also analyzed the solvent washing effect on both the wax removal and the seed dehulling ability. Chapter 6 gives the extraction curves of major (triglycerides) and minor compounds (tocopherols, phospholipids and waxes) obtained from sunflower expellers at different temperatures and batch system. A model is applied for the determination of effective-diffusion coefficients. Chapter 7 presents an analysis of the variation of oil composition and quality, simulating the different stages of an industrial extractor in stationary state. The obtained information of the kinetic curves of the oil and of the minor compounds was implemented in a simulation software that takes into account several extraction stages. Chapter 8 summarizes the main conclusions and proposes some future investigation lines.

Ce mémoire rapporte l’optimisation et l’évaluation d’une nouvelle version du test PAMPA (Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay) appelée Néo-PAMPA. Ce test qui permet la prédiction de l’absorption intestinale de médicaments consiste en l’utilisation d’une membrane modèle de la paroi intestinale composée d’une bicouche lipidique déposée sur un coussin de polydopamine recouvrant un filtre poreux. En effet, nous nous sommes intéressés lors de ce projet à la mise en place d’une membrane artificielle qui serait plus représentative de la paroi intestinale humaine. Nous avons pu déterminer, suite à une étude comparative des propriétés de huit médicaments ainsi que les coefficients de perméabilité obtenus, que les filtres en polycarbonate présentaient le meilleur choix de support solide pour la membrane. Nous avons également vérifié la déposition du coussin de polydopamine qui apporte le caractère fluide à la bicouche lipidique. Les résultats des tests de perméabilité ont démontré que le coussin de polymère n’obstrue pas les pores du filtre après un dépôt de 4h. Nous avons par la suite étudié la déposition de la bicouche lipidique sur le filtre recouvert de polydopamine. Pour ce faire, deux méthodes de préparation de liposomes ainsi que plusieurs tailles de liposomes ont été testées. Aussi, la composition en phospholipides a été sujette à plusieurs changements. Tous ces travaux d’optimisation ont permis d’aboutir à des liposomes préparés selon la méthode du « film lipidique » à partir d’un mélange de dioléoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC) et de cholestérol. Une dernière étape d’optimisation de la déposition de la bicouche reste à améliorer. Enfin, le test standard Caco-2, qui consiste à évaluer la perméabilité des médicaments à travers une monocouche de cellules cancéreuses du colon humain, a été implémenté avec succès dans le but de comparer des données de perméabilité avec un test de référence. / This essay reports the optimization and evaluation of a new version of the Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay (PAMPA), called Neo-PAMPA. This test, used for the prediction of the drugs’ intestinal absorption, involves the use of a model intestine cell membrane in which a lipid bilayer is supported on a polymeric cushion deposited on a filter. In this project, we are interested in the development of an artificial membrane that is more representative of the human intestinal wall. We determined, based on a comparative study of the properties of 8 drug candidates and their permeability coefficients obtained, that polycarbonate filters were the best choice of solid support for the membrane. We also verified the deposition time of the polydopamine cushion that brings the fluid nature to our membrane. The results from the permeability tests showed that the polymer cushion do not clog the pores of the filter after a 4h deposition. Then, we studied the deposition of the lipid bilayer on the polydopamine-coated filter. To do this, two methods of liposome preparation as well as several liposome sizes were tested. Moreover, several phospholipid compositions were tested. According to our evaluation, liposomes prepared according to the "lipid film" method from a mixture of DOPC and cholesterol are better suited. Nevertheless, a final optimization step for the bilayer deposition is still required. Finally, the gold standard Caco-2 assay used to assess the drug permeability across a monolayer of human Colon Colorectal adenocarcinoma cells was successfully implemented for permeability data comparison.

Platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase (PAFAH) is elevated in atherosclerosis and may play a role in pathogenesis of this disease. Molecular mechanisms regulating the expression of this lipoprotein-associated PLA2 are indistinct. Mildy oxidized low density lipoprotein (oxLDL) and monocytes (the primary source of PAFAH) are co-localized in early atheromas. Monocytes are activated by oxidized phospholipids (oxPL) in the oxLDL particle. We hypothesized that oxPL-activated monocytes are the source of increased levels of PAFAH in atherosclerosis. We found that PAFAH expression is significantly induced by OxPAPC and in particular long-chain fractions of oxPAPC in monocytes and cytokine-differentiated DC, but not cytokine-differentiated MO. Furthermore, spontaneously differentiated MO and DC from monocytes of non-periodontitis and aggressive periodontitis subjects, oxPAPC induced PAFAH in DC alone. 1-palmitoyl-2-epoxyisoprostane-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (PEIPC) is a particularly bioactive component of long-chain oxPAPC fractions that binds the prostaglandin receptor subtypes DP1 and EP2. We revealed using selective agonists and antagonists of these receptors that DP1 and EP2 are required for the induction of PAFAH expression. OxPAPC stimulates IL-6 release from monocytes and this cytokine is required for oxPAPC-induced PAFAH expression. We next tested the hypothesis that oxPAPC did not induce PAFAH in MO because a key component of the signaling machinery was lacking. Flow cytometric and immunoblot analyses demonstrated that MO express very low levels of IL-6 receptor in comparison to DC and monocytes. Based on these observations, we propose that long-chain oxPL induce PAFAH expression by binding DP1 and/or EP2 and stimulating IL-6 production. These data strongly support the hypothesis that oxLDL-activated DC are the source of high PAFAH levels in atherosclerosis. Platelet activating factor (PAF) is the inflammatory phospholipids for which PAFAH is named. PAF has been shown by other investigators to induce the expression of PAFAH. In our physiologically relevant monocytes, PAF suppresses PAFAH transcription and expression. 1-palmitoyl-2-(5-oxovaleroyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine (POVPC) is a short-chain oxPL that signals through the PAF receptor. Our preliminary data suggest that like PAF, POVPC suppresses PAFAH expression in monocytes. Further investigation into the effects of the short-chain oxPL are warranted. Our data support the hypothesies that oxPL-activated DC are the source of high PAFAH levels in atherosclerosis.

This work was focused on the preparation of model stabilized phospholipid membranes formed on porous polycarbonate carrier. 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholin was used for their formation in hydrophilic pores of polycarbonate carrier. For characterization of the formation of phospholipid layers, their changes and a study of transport processes, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and voltammetry were used. Transport of cadmium and copper ions was studied in the presence and in the absence of ionophore calcimycin which was incorporated into the formed of phospholipid membrane. Because these ions are often bound in complexes with various substances, such as low molecular weight organic acids (LMWOAs), this work was also focused on the transport of copper and cadmium ions across the model phospholipid membranes in the presence of malic acid, citric acid and oxalic acid at different pH. Besides the use of ionophore, some pilot experiments were performed to realize the transfer of copper ions using two peptides, nisin and transportan 10. Formation of phospholipid membranes and the transport processes were characterized by two proposed electric equivalent circuits which correspond to the covered and to the uncovered polycarbobate carrier. Keywords: Phospholipids, Membranes, Ionophore, Peptid....

Le travail suivant est consacré d'une part à l'emploi du calix[4]arène comme une plate-forme organisatrice de principes actifs pour la conception de nouvelles prodrogues. Ce concept a été développé avec des substances antibactériennes ou antivirales, choisies comme modèles. Les conjugués calixarène - anti-infectieux ainsi synthétisés sont amphiphiles et insolubles dans l'eau. Leur comportement interfacial a été étudié via l'interface eau-air, mime d'une interface hydrophile-hydrophobe physiologique, à l'aide de la technique des films monomoléculaires de Langmuir. Nos résultats indiquent que ces prodrogues étalées à l'interface eau-air peuvent libérer leurs principes actifs dans la sous-phase. La méthodologie développée pour ces études de réactivité interfaciale pourrait à l'avenir être appliquée à d'autres prodrogues à base de calix[4]arène. Un second projet a concerné le trifluoroacétate de tétra-p-(guanidinoéthyl)-calix[4]arène (CX1). Ce composé présente des propriétés antibactériennes à large spectre, couplées à une faible toxicité cellulaire. Nos travaux ont visé à mieux comprendre son mode d'action, lié à une perturbation des parois bactériennes, par une approche physico-chimique. La technique de Langmuir a donc été employée afin d'étudier les interactions entre le CX1 et des films monomoléculaires de phospholipides étalés à l'interface eau-air, utilisés comme modèles de membrane bactérienne. Nos résultats nous ont permis de proposer un mode d'organisation des membranes bactériennes sous l'influence du CX1. Nous avons ainsi apporté des précisions sur son mécanisme d'action qui pourraient être utiles dans le développement de nouveaux calixarènes antibactériens / This work begins with utilization of the calix[4]arene macrocycle as organizing platform of anti-infectious molecules shaped as prodrug. The concept has been explored using antibacterial (nalidixic acid) and antiviral (aciclovir, ganciclovir) molecules, chosen as models. The calixarene - anti-infectious conjugates synthesized have amphiphilic structure and are insoluble in aqueous media. Their interfacial behavior was studied via the air-water interface, considered as mimic of biological hydrophilic-hydrophobic interfaces, using Langmuir monolayers technique. Our results indicate that calixarene-based prodrugs spread at the air-water interface are able to release anti-infectious molecules into the subphase. The original methodology employed for interfacial reactivity studies could be applied to further calixarene-based prodrugs. A second project concerns the trifluoroacetate salt of tetra-p-(guanidinoethyl)-calix[4]arene (CX1). CX1 is antibacterial, active against various Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with low eukaryotic cell toxicity. The aim of our work was to get more insight in the mechanism of action of CX1, involving bacterial wall disruption, by a physico-chemical approach. The Langmuir monolayers technique was employed in order to study interactions between CX1 and phospholipid monolayers spread at the air-water interface, used as models of bacterial membranes. Our results led us to propose a particular reorganization mode of bacterial membranes upon interactions with CX1. This proposal gives more understanding in the mechanism of biological activity of CX1, and could be helpful in developing new antibacterial calixarene derivatives

Les dernières données de consommation alimentaire de la population française démontrent que les apports nutritionnels en acide eicosapentaénoïque (EPA) et en acide docosahexaénoïque (DHA) sont nettement inférieurs aux recommandations fixées par l’Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire, de l’alimentation, de l’environnement et du travail (ANSES). Compte tenu de leurs rôles physiologiques, l’amélioration de leur biodisponibilité est devenue une priorité nutritionnelle. La maitrise des formes de vectorisation des acides gras polyinsaturés à longue chaine de la série n-3 (AGPI-LC n-3) représente une piste d’intérêt afin de répondre à cette problématique. C’est dans ce contexte que s’inscrit ce travail de thèse, visant à étudier l’influence de la forme moléculaire (phospholipides (PL) vs triglycérides (TG)) et/ou supramoléculaire (phase continue, émulsion, liposomes) de vectorisation des AGPI-LC n-3 sur leur devenir métabolique.La démarche expérimentale adoptée a consisté, dans un premier temps, à caractériser les différentes formes de vectorisation des AGPI-LC n-3 par un couplage de méthodes d’analyse physico-chimiques (microscopie optique, granulométrie, mesure des produits primaires et secondaires d’oxydation, lipolyse enzymatique). Les données obtenues ont permis de poser des hypothèses mécanistiques pour l’étude de la biodisponibilité chez le rat. Ainsi, dans un deuxième temps, l’étude in vivo a permis d’aborder (1) l’absorption intestinale des acides gras (AG) suite à un apport en bolus de lipides et (2) l’accrétion tissulaire suite à un régime de 8 semaines.Les résultats indiquent que la forme moléculaire de vectorisation des AGPI-LC n-3 (TG marins vs PL marins, en phase continue) n’influence pas leur absorption intestinale mais plutôt leur incorporation dans les lipides lymphatiques, principaux transporteurs des AG alimentaires dans l’organisme. A l’inverse, la structuration des PL marins en milieu aqueux (émulsion ou liposomes), permet d’améliorer l’absorption de l’EPA et du DHA, de façon spécifique à la nature de la structuration supramoléculaire. Les résultats de l’accrétion tissulaire montrent qu’au terme des 8 semaines de régime, l’enrichissement tissulaire en AGPI-LC n-3 s’effectue de façon différente selon leur forme moléculaire de vectorisation. Ainsi, la consommation de TG marins favorise l’incorporation des AGPI-LC n-3 dans les lipides hépatiques, alors que la supplémentation des régimes en PL marins permet d’orienter le DHA vers le cerveau et la rétine.L’ensemble de ces résultats montre que le choix de la forme moléculaire de vectorisation des AGPI-LC n-3 (PL vs TG) peut être un moyen d'orienter leur incorporation tissulaire, alors que leur structuration supramoléculaire (émulsion ou liposomes), une stratégie pour moduler leur absorption intestinale. / The latest data from the cross-sectional national French dietary study show that dietary intakes of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are significantly lower than those recommended by the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES). Considering their physiological roles, improving their dietary intake has became a nutritional priority. The control of the different forms of n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty (n-3 LC-PUFA) intake represents an interesting way to address this issue. In this context, this thesis aims at studying the influence of the molecular form (phospholipids (PL) vs triglycerides (TG)) and/or supramolecular form (continuous phase, emulsion, liposomes) of n-3 LC-PUFA towards their bioavailability.The experimental approach consisted in characterizing the different forms of n-3 LC-PUFAs by coupling various physicochemical methods (optical microscopy, granulometry, measurement of primary and secondary oxidation products, enzymatic lipolysis). The data obtained made it possible to propose some mechanistic hypothesis for the bioavailability studies conducted in rat. Thus, in a second step, the in vivo study made addresses (1) the intestinal absorption of fatty acids following a single dose of lipids and (2) the lipid tissue accretion following an 8-week diet.The data obtained from the intestinal absorption study indicate that the molecular form of n-3 LC-PUFA targeting (marine TG vs marine PL, in continuous phase) does not influence their intestinal absorption but rather their incorporation into lymphatic lipids, which are the main carriers for dietary fatty acids in the organism. Conversely, structuring marine PL (emulsion or liposomes) improves the EPA and DHA absorption, but differently according to the supramolecular form. The results concerning tissue accretion show that, after 8-week diet, the tissue enrichment in n-3 LC-PUFA is different according to the molecular form of targeting. The consumption of marine TG favours the incorporation of n-3 LC-PUFA into hepatic lipids, while the supplementation of diets with marine PL targets DHA preferentially to brain and retina.All these results show that the molecular form of targeting (PL vs TG) of n-3 LC-PUFA can be a way for managing their tissue incorporation, whereas the supramolecular organization (emulsion or liposomes) can be envisaged to monitor their intestinal absorption.

Der Gegenstand dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung von organischen Filmen und deren Interaktion mit membranaktiven Substanzen mit der Raskraftmikroskopie. Begleitend zur Durchführung dieser Aufgabe wurde ein Rasterkraftmikroskop entwickelt, dessen technische Ausführung es gestattete, Aspekte der Abbildung und der gezielten Modifikation organischer Filme mit dem Rasterkraftmikroskop eingehender zu untersuchen. Als organische Filme fanden Phospholipidfilme aus DMPC, DPPC, POPC, PC und Mischungen aus ihnen Verwendung, welche als Modell für biologische Membrane betrachtet werden können. Durch Mischungen der Phospholipide ließen sich Modellmembrane herstellen, welche einerseits für die Untersuchungsmethode ausreichend stabil erwiesen und eine Gel-Flüssigphasenseparation zeigten. Zwei Herstellungsmethoden für die Filme, die Vesikelfusion und eine Technik, welche als „solution spreading“ bekannt ist, wurden angewandt. Die letztgenannte Methode konnte für die in-situ Abbildung mit dem Rasterkraftmikroskop in Flüssigkeiten adaptiert werden. An den hergestellten Lipidfilmen sind Veränderungen der Oberfläche durch die Interaktion mit Peptiden und weiteren Substanzen beobachtet und deren Einfluss auf die Topographie der Modelloberfläche im zeitlichen Verlauf mit dem Rasterkraftmikroskop abgebildet worden. Die Beobachtungen zeigten, dass die Interaktion der verwendeten Peptide zu einer in den flüssigen Regionen des Filmes beginnenden Veränderung führen, welche sich auch von den Rändern her in die Bereiche im Gelzustand fortsetzt. Mit Hilfe einer Simulation konnten ausgewählte Aspekte der untersuchten Wechselwirkung der Peptide mit der Modellmembran nachvollzogen werden. / The object of this work was the investigation of organic films and their interaction with membrane active substances by scanning force microscopy. In addition to this objective a scanning force microscope was also developed. The specifications of the device permitted a more detailed investigation of aspects of the mapping process and the direct modification of organic films with the scanning force microscope. As organic films the phospholipids DMPC, DPPC, POPC, PC and mixtures of them were used. These can be considered as model for biological membranes. Mixtures of phospholipids allow the preparation of model membranes which show a gel-liquid-phase separation and which are sufficiently stable for the application to the investigation method. Two different preparation methods -- vesicle fusion and solution spreading -- were used. The latter method could be adapted for scanning force microscopy in liquids. For the prepared films alterations of the surface due to interaction with petides and other substances were observed and their influence on the topography of the model surface was time dependently mapped. The observations show that the alterations due to interaction with the peptides starts in the liquid phase regions and propagates over the border regions into the gel-state areas. By means of a computer simulation selected aspects of the investigated peptide interaction could be verified.