<p dir="ltr">Insights from research into the natural photosynthetic processes are applied to inform the rational design of inorganic catalysts. The study of these synthetic systems – artificial photosynthesis – will lead towards the development of a device able to absorb light, convert and store the energy in the form of chemical bonds. The water-splitting reaction, a bottleneck of the photosynthetic process, is a key barrier to overcome in this endeavor. Thus, the focused study of water-oxidation catalysts able to facilitate this difficult reaction is performed, in order to develop a green-energy solution in the form of an artificial photosynthesis system.</p>

Die pflanzliche Light-harvesting complex-Proteinfamilie besteht aus Proteinen mit vielfältigen Funktionen. Dabei ist die Funktion der Light-harvesting-like 3-Proteine (LIL3) sowie der One-helix-Proteine (OHPs) weitestgehend unbekannt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass LIL3 nicht nur mit der Geranylgeranyl-Reduktase (CHLP), sondern auch mit der Protochlorophyllid-Oxidoreduktase (POR) interagiert. Sowohl CHLP als auch POR werden über die Interaktion zu LIL3 an die Thylakoidmembran gebunden und dadurch stabilisiert. Beide Enzyme liefern die direkten Vorstufen für den von der Chlorophyll-Synthase (CHLG) katalysierten finalen Chlorophyll-Syntheseschritt. Neben der Bestätigung der bereits früher gezeigten Chlorophyllbindung von LIL3 konnte eine Affinität zu den späten Intermediaten der Chlorophyllbiosynthese Proto IX, MgP, MgPMME und Pchlid nachgewiesen werden. Die größte Affinität bestand dabei gegenüber dem Substrat von POR, Pchlid. Basierend auf diesen Erkenntnissen wird LIL3 als Regulator der späten Chlorophyllbiosynthese-Schritte vorgeschlagen: LIL3 transportiert Substrate zwischen den Enzymen und ermöglicht durch die Bindung von CHLP und POR die Synthese der Chlorophyll-Edukte in räumlicher Nähe. Dadurch wird die Versorgung von CHLG mit dessen Edukten favorisiert. Beide OHP-Varianten (OHP1/2) bilden ausschließlich Heterodimere und binden Chlorophyll sowie Carotinoide im Verhältnis 3:1. Die Pigmentbindung basiert auf den konservierten Aminosäuren im Chlorophyllbindemotiv. An das OHP1-OHP2-Dimer bindet der PSII-Assemblierungsfaktor HCF244 und wird dadurch an der Membran verankert. HCF244 stabilisiert das OHP-Heterodimer und beide OHPs stabilisieren sich gegenseitig. Der heterotrimere OHP1-OHP2-HCF244-Komplex ist für die D1-Synthese wesentlich. Es wird vermutet, dass die OHPs an der co-translationalen Beladung von (p)D1 mit Pigmenten beteiligt sind sowie frühe Assemblierungsintermediate von PSII vor überschüssiger Anregungsenergie schützen. / The plant light-harvesting complex protein family comprises different members with a variety of functions. However, the function of the light-harvesting-like 3 proteins (LIL3) as well as the one-helix proteins (OHPs) is largely unknown. In this thesis, an interaction of LIL3 not only with geranylgeranyl-reductase (CHLP), but also with protochlorophyllide-oxidoreductase (POR) could be established. LIL3 tethers CHLP and POR to the thylakoid membrane, thereby conferring stability to both enzymes. Both CHLP and POR are synthesizing the direct chlorophyll precursors which are combined to chlorophyll by the subsequent chlorophyll synthase (CHLG). In addition to the chlorophyll binding ability of LIL3 reported earlier, an affinity of LIL3 towards the chlorophyll biosynthesis intermediates Proto IX, MgP, MgPMME, and Pchlide could be shown. Interestingly, the highest affinity of LIL3 was exerted towards Pchlide which is the substrate of POR. Therefore, LIL3 is postulated to shuffle the intermediates between enzymes and brings CHLP and POR in close proximity, which may help to supply CHLG with its substrates. Regarding the function of the OHPs an exclusive heterodimer formation of both the OHP1 and OHP2 variants could be shown. The OHP1-OHP2-heterodimer is able to bind chlorophyll and carotenoids in an approximate 3:1 ratio and pigment binding depends on dimer formation as well as the presence of the conserved amino acids in the chlorophyll binding motif. The PSII-assembly factor HCF244 is anchored to the thylakoid membrane by binding to both OHPs, thereby stabilizing the OHP-heterodimer. The heterotrimeric OHP1-OHP2-HCF244-complex is essential for D1 biosynthesis, although the exact molecular function of HCF244 is still unknown. It is suggested that the OHP-dimer is responsible for co-translational loading of (p)D1 with pigments as well as photoprotection of early PSII assembly intermediates.

Gracilaria. caudata J. Agardh é uma das espécies mais comuns no Oceano Atlântico tropical e subtropical. No nordeste do Brasil a espécie é explotada como uma importante agarófita, onde recentemente foram encontradas variantes de coloração marrom-esverdeada crescendo lado a lado a indivíduos de coloração vermelha (mais comuns) em uma população natural. Este estudo teve por objetivo averiguar a estabilidade e o padrão de herança de cor marrom-esverdeada de indivíduos de G. caudata procedentes de uma população natural, bem como avaliar o desempenho somático e reprodutivo das diferentes fases do histórico de vida, levando-se em consideração indivíduos de coloração marrom-esverdeada e vermelha. A partir de cruzamentos teste foi possível verificar que a coloração marrom-esverdeada é estável e herdável, sendo o padrão de herança dessa coloração do tipo nuclear codominante, em que tetrasporófitos homozigotos são vermelhos (vmvm) ou marrom-esverdeados (meme) e os heterozigotos apresentam o fenótipo marrom (vmme e mevm). Variantes pigmentares, independentemente da fase do histórico, atingiram precocemente a maturidade reprodutiva quando comparadas a espécimes do tipo selvagem. Essa característica pode favorecer a manutenção da variante marrom-esverdeada na natureza. No entanto, apesar da diferenciação tardia de cistocarpos, gametófitos femininos, provenientes de tetrasporófitos vmvm, apresentaram um melhor desempenho reprodutivo em relação a gametófitos femininos provenientes de tetrasporófitos com variação pigmentar (meme, vmme e mevm); essa característica poderia contribuir para a predominância de espécimes selvagens na natureza. Entretanto, tetrasporófitos com variação pigmentar não só atingiram precocemente a maturidade reprodutiva como se tornaram mais férteis em relação ao tipo selvagem. Apenas na descendência de tetrasporófitos selvagens (vmvm) foi observada a proporção sexual esperada, entre gametófitos femininos e masculinos. Na progênie de tetrasporófitos com variação pigmentar foram observadas alterações na proporção sexual, devido à presença de gametófitos bissexuais. Essa condição de bissexualidade, provavelmente, é decorrente da presença de um alelo recessivo denominado bi, o qual possibilitaria a expressão de funções femininas em gametófitos masculinos. No presente estudo, pudemos evidenciar que a bissexualidade em G. caudata é herdável, e que gametófitos femininos que portam a mutação bi foram capazes de transmitir a mutação aos descendentes, porém o alelo não é fenotipicamente detectável. Como não foram observados gametófitos bissexuais na descendência de tetrasporófitos vmvm (provenientes do cruzamento feminino vm x masculino vm) sugere-se que a mutação bi estaria presente apenas em tetrasporófitos marrom-esverdeados oriundos da natureza. No entanto, permanece a possibilidade de ocorrência de espécimes bissexuais de coloração vermelha em populações naturais, já que tais indivíduos foram observados na progênie de tetrasporófitos vmme e mevm, indicando assim, que não há ligação entre a bissexualidade e a coloração do talo. Gametófitos femininos vermelhos apresentam melhor desempenho somático quando comparados a gametófitos femininos marrom-esverdeados. Esse aspecto foi evidenciado por meio de taxas de crescimento, número de ápices diferenciados e percentual de fixação ao frasco de cultura. Essas características devem contribuir para a predominância de espécimes do tipo selvagem na natureza. Gametófitos marrom-esverdeados, em contrapartida, apresentaram melhor desempenho fotossintetizante, o que poderia representar uma vantagem, considerando-se o ambiente heterogêneo de ocorrência da espécie, e desse modo, contribuir para a manutenção dessa variante em população natural. Entretanto, não foram observadas diferenças com relação às taxas crescimento entre tetrasporófitos dos quatro genótipos (vmvm, meme, vmme e mevm), apesar das diferenças quanto à fertilidade, concentração pigmentar, número de ápices diferenciados e desempenho fotossintetizante. Tais tetrasporófitos apresentaram taxas de crescimento semelhantes às observadas para gametófitos femininos marrom-esverdeados, apesar do melhor desempenho fotossintetizante desses últimos. Os dados obtidos nesse trabalho sugerem que a variante marrom-esverdeada apresente vantagens adaptativas para G. caudata / Gracilaria caudata J. Agardh is one of the most common species in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean. In the northeast of Brazil the species is exploited as an important agar producer, where greenish-brown color variants have recently been found growing side by side with individuals of red color (more common) in a natural population. The aim of this study was to investigate the stability and pattern of green-brown inheritance of G. caudata individuals from a natural population, as well as to evaluate the somatic and reproductive performance of the different stages of life history, considering individuals of greenish-brown and red colors. From test crosses it was possible to verify that the greenish-brown color is stable and inheritable. Codominant nuclear inheritance was found in the greenish-brown strains. Homozygous tetrasporophytes are red (rdrd) or greenish-brown (gbgb) while heterozygous tetrasporophytes present the brown phenotype (rdgb and gbrd). Color variants, regardless of the history phase, reached early reproductive maturity when compared to wild type specimens. This feature may favor the maintenance of the greenish-brown variant in nature. However, in spite of the late differentiation of cystocarps, female gametophytes derived from rdrd tetrasporophytes had a better reproductive performance in relation to female gametophytes from tetrasporophytes with color variation (gbgb, rdgb and gbrd); this feature could contribute to the predominance of wild specimens in nature. However, tetrasporophytes with color variation not only reached reproductive maturity early but also became more fertile in relation to the wild type. The expected sexual ratio between female and male gametophytes was only observed in the offspring of wild tetrasporophytes (rdrd). There were changes in the sexual proportion in the progeny of tetrasporophytes with color variation due to the presence of bisexual gametophytes. This condition of bisexuality is probably due to the presence of a recessive allele called bi, which would allow the expression of female functions in male gametophytes. In the present study, we could show that bisexuality in G. caudata is inheritable, and that female gametophytes, which carry the bi mutation, were able to transmit the mutation to the offspring, but the allele is not phenotypically detectable. As no bisexual gametophytes were found in the offspring of rdrd tetrasporophytes (from the cross female rd x male rd), it is suggested that the bi mutation would only be present in brown-green tetrasporophytes from the natural population. However, it remains the possibility of occurrence of bisexual specimens of red color in natural populations, since such individuals were observed in the progeny of tetrasporophytes rdgb and gbrd, thus indicating that there is no link between bisexuality and the thallus color. Red female gametophytes show better somatic performance when compared to the greenish-brown female gametophytes. This aspect was evidenced by means of growth rates, number of differentiated apices, and percentage of attachment to the culture flask. These characteristics should contribute to the predominance of wild type specimens in natural populations. Otherwise, the greenish-brown gametophytes showed better photosynthetic performance, which could represent an advantage considering the heterogeneous environment of the species occurrence, thus contributing to the maintenance of this variant in the natural population. However, no differences were observed among tetrasporophytes of the four genotypes (rdrd, gbgb, rdgb and gbrd), regarding the growth rates, despite of the differences in fertility, pigment concentration, number of differentiated apices, and photosynthetic performance. These tetrasporophytes presented similar growth rates to those observed for greenish-brown female gametophytes, despite of the better photosynthetic performance of the latter. The data obtained in this work suggest that the greenish-brown variant presents adaptive advantages for G. caudata

La photosynthèse artificielle est considérée comme étant un atout capable de fournir des carburants alternatifs et renouvelables par conversion et stockage de l'énergie solaire. Une approche prometteuse consiste en un développement de photo-catalyseurs moléculaires inspirés par des enzymes photosynthétiques naturelles. La première partie de cette thèse concerne les modèles artificiels du photosystème II (qui catalyse l'oxydation d'eau), composé d'un chromophore et d’un relais d’électrons comme équivalent synthétique correspondant à l'ensemble P680-TyrZ/His190 du photosystème II. Trois complexes ruthénium polypyridyl - imidazole - phénol avec un groupe méthylique à différentes positions sur l'anneau phénolique (Ru-xMe) ont été synthétisés et caractérisés par des méthodes électrochimiques et photophysiques. L’augmentation, comparée aux complexes précédents, du potentiel redox des groupes phénols (0.20 V->0.9 V par rapport à l’électrode de ferrocène) rend leur fonction de relais d’électron dans un système photocatalytique pour l'oxydation d'eau thermodynamiquement possible. Des études d’absorption transitoire ont révélé que le transfert d’électron intramoléculaire est rapide (5-10 µs dans solvant aprotique et < 100 ns dans l'eau) malgré la faible force motrice, mettant en evidence l'importance de la liaison hydrogène entre le phénol et le groupe imidazole. Les légères différences entre les trois complexes Ru-xMe ainsi que l’étude de l'effet de bases externes nous ont permis d’établir un mécanisme dans laquelle l'imidazole est impliqué dans une réaction de transfert de proton en cascade. L'acceptation du proton phénolique durant l'oxydation du ligand rend son deuxième site azote plus acide et seulement la déprotonation de ce dernier bascule l’équilibre réactionnel complétement vers l'oxydation du ligand. La deuxième partie de cette thèse consiste en la synthèse d’un complexe chromophore-tryptophane en utilisant une approche de chimie dite « click ». On a montré que l'oxydation, induite par la lumière, du Trp au sein du complexe Ru-tryptophane suit un mécanisme ETPT. Selon le pH, les radicaux du tryptophane (Trp• ou TrpH•⁺) ont été détectés et les mesures spectrales à différents temps ont montrés la transition entre les deux formes radicalaires. La déprotonation du radical dépend de la concentration d'eau assurant la fonction d’accepteur de proton. La dernière partie de la thèse concerne nos efforts à lier, par une liaison covalente, une unité catalytique au module de chromophore- relais électronique caractérisé précédemment. L'approche de chimie « click » n’était pas efficace pour l’obtention de l’assemblage photocatalytique final. Donc, l'activation biomoléculaire d'un catalyseur Mn salen a été effectuée et la formation de l’espèce Mn(IV) a été observée. Etant une étape vers l'utilisation de ces types de photocatalyseurs dans une cellule photoélectrochimique, un chromophore [Ru(bpy)₃]²⁺ avec des groupes d’ancrage phosphonate a été synthétisé (Ru-phosphonate) et greffé sur la surface méso-poreuses d'un semi-conducteur de TiO₂ pour effectuer des mesures du photocourant. / Artificial photosynthesis is often considered to have great potential to provide alternative, renewable fuels by harvesting, conversion and storage of solar energy. One promising approach is the development of modular molecular photocatalysts inspired by natural photosynthetic enzymes. The first part of this thesis deals with artificial mimics of the water oxidizing photosystem II composed of a chromophore and an electron relay as synthetic counterpart of the P680-TyrZ/His190 ensemble of photosystem II. Three ruthenium polypyridyl – imidazole - phenol complexes with varying position of a methyl group on the phenol ring (Ru-xMe) were synthesized and characterized by electrochemical and photophysical methods. As an improvement compared to earlier complexes the increased redox potential (~0.9 V vs. Ferrocene) of the phenol groups makes their function as an electron relay in a photocatalytic system for water oxidation thermodynamically possible. Time-resolved absorption studies revealed fast intramolecular electron transfer (<5-10 µs in aprotic solvent and <100 ns in water) despite the low driving force and the importance of the hydrogen bond between the phenol and the imidazole group was put in evidence. Slight differences between the three Ru-xMe complexes and investigation of the effect of external bases allowed to derive a mechanistic picture in which the imidazole is involved in a “proton domino” reaction. Accepting the phenolic proton upon ligand oxidation (within the H-bond) renders its second nitrogen site more acidic and only deprotonation of this site pulls the overall equilibrium completely towards oxidation of the ligand. Another part of this thesis comprises a chromophore-tryptophan construct synthesized using a click chemistry approach. Light-induced oxidation of Trp in this Ru-tryptophan complex was shown to follow ETPT mechanism. Depending on the pH conditions tryptophan radicals, either Trp• or TrpH•⁺ were detected and spectral measurement at different time showed the transition between the two forms. Deprotonation of the radical was dependent on the concentration of water as proton acceptor. Later part of the thesis deals with efforts to covalently bind a catalytic unit to the previously characterized chromophore-electron relay module. The click chemistry approach was not successful to obtain the final photocatalytic assembly. Therefore bimolecular activation of a Mn salen catalyst was performed and formation of Mn(IV) species was observed. As a step towards utilization of these types of photocatalysts in a photoelectrochemical cell a [Ru(bpy)₃]²⁺ chromophore with phosphonate anchoring groups (Ru-Phosphonate) was synthesized and grafted on the surface of a TiO₂ mesoporous semiconductor surface anode to perform photocurrent measurements.

Grazed pastures are the backbone of the Brazilian livestock industry and grasses of the genus Brachiaria (syn. Urochloa) are some of most used tropical forages in the country. Although the dependence on the forage resource is high, grazing management is often empirical and based on broad and non-specific guidelines. Mulato II brachiariagrass (Convert HD 364, Dow AgroSciences, São Paulo, Brazil) (B. brizantha × B. ruziziensis × B. decumbens), a new Brachiaria hybrid, was released as an option for a broad range of environmental conditions. There is no scientific information on specific management practices for Mulato II under continuous stocking in Brazil. The objectives of this research were to describe and explain variations in carbon assimilation, herbage accumulation (HA), plant-part accumulation, nutritive value, and grazing efficiency (GE) of Mulato II brachiariagrass as affected by canopy height and growth rate, the latter imposed by N fertilization rate, under continuous stocking. An experiment was carried out in Piracicaba, SP, Brazil, during two summer grazing seasons. The experimental design was a randomized complete block, with a 3 x 2 factorial arrangement, corresponding to three steady-state canopy heights (10, 25 and 40 cm) maintained by mimicked continuous stocking and two growth rates (imposed as 50 and 250 kg N ha-1 yr-1), with three replications. There were no height × N rate interactions for most of the responses studied. The HA of Mulato II increased linearly (8640 to 13400 kg DM ha-1 yr-1), the in vitro digestible organic matter (IVDOM) decreased linearly (652 to 586 g kg-1), and the GE decreased (65 to 44%) as canopy height increased. Thus, although GE and IVDOM were greatest at 10 cm height, HA was 36% less for the 10- than for the 40-cm height. The leaf carbon assimilation was greater for the shortest canopy (10 cm), but canopy assimilation was less than in taller canopies, likely a result of less leaf area index (LAI). The reductions in HA, plant-part accumulation, and LAI, were not associated with other signs of stand deterioration. Leaf was the main plant-part accumulated, at a rate that increased from 70 to 100 kg DM ha-1 d-1 as canopy height increased from 10 to 40 cm. Mulato II was less productive (7940 vs. 13380 kg ha-1 yr-1) and had lesser IVDOM (581 vs. 652 g kg-1) at the lower N rate. The increase in N rate affected plant growth, increasing carbon assimilation, LAI, rates of plant-part accumulation (leaf, stem, and dead), and HA. The results indicate that the increase in the rate of dead material accumulation due to more N applied is a result of overall increase in the accumulation rates of all plant-parts. Taller canopies (25 or 40 cm) are advantageous for herbage accumulation of Mulato II, but nutritive value and GE was greater for 25 cm, suggesting that maintaining &sim;25-cm canopy height is optimal for continuously stocked Mulato II. / As pastagens são o elemento central da pecuária brasileira, sendo as gramíneas do gênero Brachiaria (sin. Urochloa) as plantas forrageiras tropicais mais utilizadas. O capim Mulato II (Convert HD 364, Dow AgroSciences, São Paulo, Brazil) (B. brizantha × B. ruziziensis × B. decumbens) foi lançado como uma opção para diversas condições ambientais e de manejo. Entretanto não existem informações de práticas de manejo específicas para o capim Mulato II sob lotação contínua no Brasil. Os objetivos desse estudo foram descrever e explicar variações na assimilação de carbono, acúmulo de forragem (AF), acúmulo de componentes morfológicos no dossel, valor nutritivo e eficiência de pastejo (EP) do capim Mulato II em resposta a alturas do dossel mantidas constantes e taxas de crescimento impostas por doses de nitrogênio sob lotação contínua. Um experimento foi conduzido em Piracicaba- SP, durante dois verões agrostológicos, utilizando o delineamento experimental de blocos completos casualizados com arranjo fatorial 3 × 2, correspondendo a três alturas (10, 25 e 40 cm) e duas doses de N (50 e 250 kg N ha-1 ano-1), com três repetições. A maior parte das variáveis estudadas não foram afetadas pela interação altura × dose de N. O AF do capim Mulato II aumentou linearmente (de 8640 para 13400 kg MS ha-1 ano-1), a digestibilidade in vitro da matéria orgânica (DIVMO) reduziu linearmente (de 652 para 586 g kg-1), e a EP foi reduzida (efeito linear e quadrático) de 65 para 44% com o aumento da altura do dossel. Com isso, embora a EP e a DIVMO tenham sido maiores em dosséis mantidos a 10 cm, o AF foi reduzido em 36% em comparação com aquele a 40 cm. As taxas de assimilação de carbono de folhas foi maior nos dosséis mantidos a 10 cm, mas a assimilação do dossel foi maior nos dosséis mais altos devido ao maior índice de área foliar (IAF). A redução do AF, do acúmulo de componentes morfológicos e do IAF não foram associados com outros sinais de deterioração do dossel. Folha foi o principal componente morfológico acumulado e a taxa de acúmulo aumentou linearmente de 70 para 100 kg DM ha-1 dia-1 quando a altura de manejo aumentou de 10 para 40 cm. O capim Mulato II foi menos produtivo (7940 vs. 13380 kg ha-1 ano-1) e apresentou menor DIVMO (581 vs. 652 g kg-1) na menor dose de N. O aumento na dose de N afetou o crescimento da planta, resultando em aumentos na assimilação de carbono, IAF, acúmulo de componentes morfológicos e AF. Os resultados indicam que o aumento nas taxas de acúmulo de material morto devido a maior dose de N foi resultado do aumento nas taxas de acúmulo de todos os componentes morfológicos do dossel. A manutenção do dossel mais alto (25 ou 40 cm) pode ser vantajosa devido ao aumento no AF do capim Mulato II, embora o valor nutritivo e EP tenha sido maior a 25 cm, sugerindo que esse capim deve ser mantido na altura de &sim;25-cm quando manejado sob lotação contínua.

Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) provides desert plants with distinct advantages over the C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways in harsh climates where water is scarce. CAM is, however more metabolically costly than C3 or C4 photosynthesis, and some plants, such as Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, facultatively utilize CAM when water is abundant, and water conservation unnecessary. In such situations, these plants behave akin to a C3 plant when photosynthesizing. CAM is divided into four phases, with each phase displaying unique metabolic processes. Certain changes, including changes in the timing of CO2 fixation, stable carbon isotope ratios, and tissue malic acid content accumulation patterns can indicate that a plant has shifted from CAM to C3 photosynthesis. Such shifts have been observed to be regulated primarily by water availability and ontogenic development. While facultative CAM is well documented in species like Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, and it has not been studied extensively in Agave with the exception of Agave deserti, and Agave angustifolia. A better understanding of this phenomenon would apply to the agricultural growth of this genus. This study aimed to trigger C3 to CAM shifts in Agave sensu lato species, in order to expand upon the findings of previous studies, and better understand the prevalence of facultative CAM expression in the genus. Gas exchange and stable carbon isotope measurements were taken from 2-month-old, 10-month-old, and mature agaves grown in controlled ocnditions. Tissue acid content measurements were taken from mature plants. Despite the Agave sensu lato species in this study being subjected to moisture applications ranging from dry to saturated, we were unable to observe any distinct shifts from CAM to C3 photosynthesis in any of the species tested for both seedlings and mature plants. Diel net CO2 fixation rates also increased with age, and water applications for seedlings, and decreased with heavy irrigation in mature plants. Stable carbon isotope ratios revealed that some carbon in the plant tissues was fixed by rubisco, and that some species (Polianthes tuberosa, Prochnyanthes mexicana) had carbon isotope ratios of a C3 plant, but these ratios did not change with different irrigation treatments. Malic acid accumulation remained typical of CAM plants for the species tested as well, with one exception in Polianthes tuberosa. As such, we conclude that the Agave sensu stricto species tested in this study are obligate CAM plants, and that they perform poorly mature individuals are over-watered. Additionally, the Agave sensu lato species P. mexicana, and P. tuberosa appear to be C3 plants given the results of this study.

The Canterbury plains are frequently exposed to summer drought and climate predictions forecast that the severity and frequency of summer drought will increase. The most commonly used pasture grass, perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), is drought sensitive. One possible method to maintain sward dry matter (DM) production under water stress is to use an alternative grass species such as tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.). The objective of this research was to compare summer DM production of monoculture swards of perennial ryegrass and tall fescue under various seasonal drought regimes to study physiological and biochemical drought responses of each species. Data were collected over a period of two-summer seasons, Season One (2006-2007) and Season Two (2007-2008) in an automated rain shelter at Lincoln, Canterbury. Drought treatments included exposure of plants to a spring or autumn drought or a four-weekly "irrigated" drought regime. DM yields of the two species were similar under each watering regime. The control treatment, under non-limiting conditions, has the highest accumulated yield in both Season One and Two for ryegrass (17.1 and 15.7 t DM ha⁻¹) and tall fescue (18.8 and 16.0 t DM ⁻¹) respectively. Spring and autumn drought treatments were similar for the two species in accumulated yield in either season, however the exposure to drought stress returned yields lower than the control. Consistently, the lowest-yielding treatment was the four-weekly irrigated drought, which resulted in an average yield across species in Season One of 10.1 t DM ha⁻¹ and 8.35 t DM ha⁻¹ in Season Two. Growth rates of the swards were calculated using accumulated DM production against accumulated thermal time using a base temperature of 3°C for both species. The control treatments showed a strong linear relationship for both species in both seasons, though Season Two showed a period of approximately 390 °Cd of no growth. Spring growth was similar for all treatments until October when both the spring drought and four-weekly irrigated treatment deviated from the control as water stress commenced. Growth also ceased under autumn drought later in the season. The physiological drought responses between species and among treatments differed. Tall fescue under control conditions had the highest photosynthesis rates of 20.5 µmol CO₂ m⁻² s⁻¹,or 22% higher than ryegrass, whereas the four-weekly irrigated treatment showed no inter-species differences. Differences were also found for other gas exchange parameters. Physiological water use efficiency (phys WUE) in ryegrass was 15% greater than tall fescue in Season Two. Photosynthesis and gas exchange rates against leaf water potential showed declining gas flow in both species across all treatments in response to drying soil conditions and across all irrigation treatments. The osmo-protectant proline was 22% higher in concentration in ryegrass than in tall fescue in Season Two and increased in drought stressed treatments in both seasons. Water stress was found to reduce total chlorophyll concentrations in all treatments and in tall fescue, while little change occurred in the chlorophyll a:b ratio. In conclusion, the findings from this thesis suggest similar DM responses for the two species under drought. The findings suggests that tall fescue performs more as a "water user" under drought conditions, compared with perennial ryegrass, which is more a "water saver." Resonses to the changing environment to a point, before "shuttting up shop" through lower stomatal conductance.

No description available.

During photosynthesis Plantaginaceae species can produce glucose derivatives such as iridoid glycosides and alcohol sugars that in addition to sucrose can be exported from leaves. Plantago lanceolata transported sorbitol in addition to sucrose especially at warmer leaf temperatures. However, two iridoids, catalpol and aucubin, found in P. lanceolata were not readily labelled from 14CO2 under any conditions examined. In contrast, in two greenhouse, cut-flower cultivars of Antirrhinum majus the iridoids, antirrhinoside and antirrhide, were readily 14C-labelled along with sucrose but little 14C was recovered in alcohol sugars (e.g., mannitol). The amount of 14C-partitioned into antirrhinoside increased at higher temperatures. Exposing leaves of P. lanceolata and A. majus to reduced-photorespiratory conditions (e.g. short-term CO2 enrichment and/or low O2) increased fixation and export. Under low O2 in P. lanceolata sorbitol 14C-labelling increased relative to sucrose and in A. majus 14C-labelling of sucrose increased relative to antirrhinoside. Also 14C-labelling of antirrhide increased more than antirrhinoside. During both short-term and long-term acclimation to high CO2, whole plant NCER, leaf photosynthesis and export increased in A. majus. Taken together the temperature and CO2 enrichment studies show plasticity in Plantaginaceae species to synthesize and transport sucrose and auxiliary glucose esters and alcohol sugars in a species-specific manner (depending on the rate of carboxylation).

Grazed pastures are the backbone of the Brazilian livestock industry and grasses of the genus Brachiaria (syn. Urochloa) are some of most used tropical forages in the country. Although the dependence on the forage resource is high, grazing management is often empirical and based on broad and non-specific guidelines. Mulato II brachiariagrass (Convert HD 364, Dow AgroSciences, São Paulo, Brazil) (B. brizantha × B. ruziziensis × B. decumbens), a new Brachiaria hybrid, was released as an option for a broad range of environmental conditions. There is no scientific information on specific management practices for Mulato II under continuous stocking in Brazil. The objectives of this research were to describe and explain variations in carbon assimilation, herbage accumulation (HA), plant-part accumulation, nutritive value, and grazing efficiency (GE) of Mulato II brachiariagrass as affected by canopy height and growth rate, the latter imposed by N fertilization rate, under continuous stocking. An experiment was carried out in Piracicaba, SP, Brazil, during two summer grazing seasons. The experimental design was a randomized complete block, with a 3 x 2 factorial arrangement, corresponding to three steady-state canopy heights (10, 25 and 40 cm) maintained by mimicked continuous stocking and two growth rates (imposed as 50 and 250 kg N ha-1 yr-1), with three replications. There were no height × N rate interactions for most of the responses studied. The HA of Mulato II increased linearly (8640 to 13400 kg DM ha-1 yr-1), the in vitro digestible organic matter (IVDOM) decreased linearly (652 to 586 g kg-1), and the GE decreased (65 to 44%) as canopy height increased. Thus, although GE and IVDOM were greatest at 10 cm height, HA was 36% less for the 10- than for the 40-cm height. The leaf carbon assimilation was greater for the shortest canopy (10 cm), but canopy assimilation was less than in taller canopies, likely a result of less leaf area index (LAI). The reductions in HA, plant-part accumulation, and LAI, were not associated with other signs of stand deterioration. Leaf was the main plant-part accumulated, at a rate that increased from 70 to 100 kg DM ha-1 d-1 as canopy height increased from 10 to 40 cm. Mulato II was less productive (7940 vs. 13380 kg ha-1 yr-1) and had lesser IVDOM (581 vs. 652 g kg-1) at the lower N rate. The increase in N rate affected plant growth, increasing carbon assimilation, LAI, rates of plant-part accumulation (leaf, stem, and dead), and HA. The results indicate that the increase in the rate of dead material accumulation due to more N applied is a result of overall increase in the accumulation rates of all plant-parts. Taller canopies (25 or 40 cm) are advantageous for herbage accumulation of Mulato II, but nutritive value and GE was greater for 25 cm, suggesting that maintaining &sim;25-cm canopy height is optimal for continuously stocked Mulato II. / As pastagens são o elemento central da pecuária brasileira, sendo as gramíneas do gênero Brachiaria (sin. Urochloa) as plantas forrageiras tropicais mais utilizadas. O capim Mulato II (Convert HD 364, Dow AgroSciences, São Paulo, Brazil) (B. brizantha × B. ruziziensis × B. decumbens) foi lançado como uma opção para diversas condições ambientais e de manejo. Entretanto não existem informações de práticas de manejo específicas para o capim Mulato II sob lotação contínua no Brasil. Os objetivos desse estudo foram descrever e explicar variações na assimilação de carbono, acúmulo de forragem (AF), acúmulo de componentes morfológicos no dossel, valor nutritivo e eficiência de pastejo (EP) do capim Mulato II em resposta a alturas do dossel mantidas constantes e taxas de crescimento impostas por doses de nitrogênio sob lotação contínua. Um experimento foi conduzido em Piracicaba- SP, durante dois verões agrostológicos, utilizando o delineamento experimental de blocos completos casualizados com arranjo fatorial 3 × 2, correspondendo a três alturas (10, 25 e 40 cm) e duas doses de N (50 e 250 kg N ha-1 ano-1), com três repetições. A maior parte das variáveis estudadas não foram afetadas pela interação altura × dose de N. O AF do capim Mulato II aumentou linearmente (de 8640 para 13400 kg MS ha-1 ano-1), a digestibilidade in vitro da matéria orgânica (DIVMO) reduziu linearmente (de 652 para 586 g kg-1), e a EP foi reduzida (efeito linear e quadrático) de 65 para 44% com o aumento da altura do dossel. Com isso, embora a EP e a DIVMO tenham sido maiores em dosséis mantidos a 10 cm, o AF foi reduzido em 36% em comparação com aquele a 40 cm. As taxas de assimilação de carbono de folhas foi maior nos dosséis mantidos a 10 cm, mas a assimilação do dossel foi maior nos dosséis mais altos devido ao maior índice de área foliar (IAF). A redução do AF, do acúmulo de componentes morfológicos e do IAF não foram associados com outros sinais de deterioração do dossel. Folha foi o principal componente morfológico acumulado e a taxa de acúmulo aumentou linearmente de 70 para 100 kg DM ha-1 dia-1 quando a altura de manejo aumentou de 10 para 40 cm. O capim Mulato II foi menos produtivo (7940 vs. 13380 kg ha-1 ano-1) e apresentou menor DIVMO (581 vs. 652 g kg-1) na menor dose de N. O aumento na dose de N afetou o crescimento da planta, resultando em aumentos na assimilação de carbono, IAF, acúmulo de componentes morfológicos e AF. Os resultados indicam que o aumento nas taxas de acúmulo de material morto devido a maior dose de N foi resultado do aumento nas taxas de acúmulo de todos os componentes morfológicos do dossel. A manutenção do dossel mais alto (25 ou 40 cm) pode ser vantajosa devido ao aumento no AF do capim Mulato II, embora o valor nutritivo e EP tenha sido maior a 25 cm, sugerindo que esse capim deve ser mantido na altura de &sim;25-cm quando manejado sob lotação contínua.