Que son intérêt soit environnemental ou économique, qu’elle s’applique aux macro, micro ou nano systèmes,la récupération d’énergie est une solution permettant de s’affranchir du remplacement, de la recharge ou même de l’utilisation de piles. Cette thèse s’inscrit dans le cadre d’une collaboration entre Oxylane (Decathlon) etle CEA et son objectif est la conception d’un circuit électronique de gestion permettant de récupérer l’énergie mécanique humaine pendant une pratique sportive afin d’alimenter un capteur communicant sans fil. Le système électronique développé dans ce travail exploite l’énergie électrique issue de récupérateurs piézoélectriques,l’extrait et la met en forme grâce à une technique d’extraction efficace et un circuit de puissance approprié.Face au comportement aléatoire de l’être humain fournissant une énergie mécanique intermittente et irrégulière,la topologie Flyback et la technique d’extraction SECE ("Synchronous Electric Charge Extraction") sont utilisés. Le récupérateur est déchargé à son maximum de tension par l’intermédiaire d’une inductance couplée et de deux transistors MOSFETs commandés. Ce travail propose une nouvelle variante de SECE : la technique MS-SECE ("Multi-Shot Synchronous Electric Charge Extraction") permet de transférer l’énergie en plusieurs paquets afin de diminuer les pertes résistives ou le volume du circuit magnétique. Afin de satisfaire la contrainte d’encombrement de l’application visée par Oxylane, un circuit de récupération implémentant cette nouvelle technique est fabriqué en technologie intégrée CMOS 0,35 μm. L’ASIC possède une consommation très faible(1 μW) et commande le circuit de puissance et quelques composants discrets. De cette façon, l’énergie électrique est convertie efficacement vers une capacité réservoir sous 3V. De plus, grâce à ses deux modes de fonctionnement("passif non-optimisé" et "actif optimisé") utilisés successivement, le circuit démarre sans énergie initiale et fonctionne sans batterie rechargeable. Le système final est compatible avec une grande variété de récupérateur piézoélectriques, notamment lorsque leur tension de sortie est élevée (>50V), et permet l’autonomie en énergie d’un capteur communicant sans fil consommant environ 100 μW. / No matter what its purpose is, economic or environmental, energy harvesting is a relevant solution to replaceor to get rid of primary batteries. This thesis is part of a collaborative laboratory between the CEA and Oxylane(Decathlon) and its aim is the design of a power management circuit which harvests mechanical energy fromhuman movements during sport practice in order to power aWireless Sensor Node (WSN). The electronic circuitwhich has been developed in this work recovers energy from piezoelectric harvesters, extracts and conditionsit thanks to an efficient energy extraction technique and to an appropriate power circuit. In response to therandom behavior of human body which supplies an intermittent and irregular energy, the Flyback topology andthe Synchronous Electric Charge Extraction technique (SECE) are employed. The energy harvester is dischargedat its maximum voltage through a coupled-inductor and two MOSFETs transistors. This work proposes a newextraction technique, derived from SECE : MS-SECE ("Multi-Shot Synchronous Electric Charge Extraction")transfers the energy in several magnetic discharges which decreases the resistive losses or the size of the magneticcomponent. In order to satisfy the size constraints aimed by Oxylane, an integrated circuit, fabricated in theAMS 0,35 μm CMOS technology, implements the MS-SECE autonomously. This very low power (1 μW) ASICcontrols the power circuit and a couple of external components. This way, the electrical energy is efficientlyconverted towards a buffer capacitor under 3V. Furthermore, thanks to its two operating modes (passive/nonoptimizedand active/optimized) successively employed, the circuit self-starts and works without battery orinitial energy. The complete system is compatible with a large variety of piezoelectric harvesters, especiallywhen their output voltages are large (>50V). Finally, it enables the complete autonomy of a WSN consumingaround 100 μW.

Dans cette thèse, nous présentons l’étude et la réalisation de micro-capteurs pour les systèmes de gestion des risques naturels. Le cahier des charges était centré sur les possibilités de concevoir des capteurs de polluants pour la surveillance des zones lagunaires dans le sud montpelliérain. Ces capteurs devaient être conçus dans une démarche « faible coût », résistant aux contraintes du milieu et pouvant communiquer et temps réel. Le premier chapitre s’appuie sur une étude bibliographique des différentes méthodes de mesures qui peuvent être utilisées pour faire de la détection de polluants et des matériaux potentiels pour réaliser le capteur. La technique de mesure la plus appropriée pour répondre aux deux premiers points du cahier des charges s’appuie sur la réalisation de transducteurs acoustiques à base de PZT en envisageant un processus technologique basé sur la technique de sérigraphie. Après avoir justifié notre choix de la technique de dépôt par sérigraphie, nous avons détaillé dans le second chapitre le processus technologique, en commençant par la réalisation de l’encre PZT, puis par le dessin des masques et pour finir nous avons détaillé les étapes de dépôt et de fonctionnalisation des transducteurs sur substrat d’alumine et sans substrat. A partir de ces premières réalisations, nous avons présenté les moyens et outils de caractérisation nécessaires pour pouvoir évaluer les différentes étapes du processus technologique mis en place, avec une attention particulière portée sur la qualité du matériau PZT et sur ses propriétés piézoélectriques. Il s’agit d’une part d’études morphologiques (images MEB, profilomètre) et structurelles (diffraction X, EDX) et d’autre part de la mesure des grandeurs piézoélectriques et diélectriques (piézomètre, analyses spectrales et d’impédances). Dans le troisième chapitre nous avons abordé le volet système de cette étude, avec la réalisation de prototypes basés sur les transducteurs sérigraphiés développés au chapitre 2. Les capteurs réalisés ont été testés et étalonnés avec des solutions d’éthanol et de toluène. Pour cela les capteurs sérigraphiés ont été testés sur des bancs expérimentaux afin de valider la technique de la mesure du temps de vol des ondes acoustiques. Dans l’optique de la miniaturisation et de l’intégration du système nous avons mis en place une électronique de commande embarquée à l’aide d’un module dédié. Enfin, pour pouvoir affiner les mesures, nous avons vu que nous pouvions envisager de croiser/corréler plusieurs paramètres. C’est ainsi que nous avons développé un capteur sérigraphié pour la mesure de la conductivité électrique en milieu aquatique. A partir des premiers résultats expérimentaux obtenus nous avons pu valider le principe de la méthode. Dans le quatrième et dernier chapitre de ce manuscrit, nous avons présenté les toutes premières études et réalisations sur la technologie LTCC. En reprenant les paramètres du processus utilisés lors des dépôts sur substrat d’alumine, nous avons réalisé et caractérisé des transducteurs déposés sur une feuille de céramique LTCC. Les premières caractérisations morphologiques et piézoélectriques sont encourageantes et les premiers tests acoustiques ont montré que la génération d’ondes acoustiques était tout à fait possible et qu’une utilisation en vue de la réalisation de capteurs de polluants était envisageable avec cette technologie. Enfin, nous avons pu réaliser une première structure 3D intégrant une cavité d’analyse. Là encore les débuts sont très prometteurs même s’il reste encore beaucoup de travail de « réglage » pour améliorer cette technologie. De plus, cette première réalisation 3D, ouvre de nombreuses perspectives au niveau de l’équipe en vue du développement de nouveaux capteurs. / In this thesis, we introduce the study and implementation of micro-sensors for natural risk management systems. The specification focused on the possibilities to develop a pollutant sensor capable of detecting the presence of hydrocarbons in the lagoon environments of southern Montpellier.These sensors should be designed in a "low cost" gait, resistant to environmental constraints and able to communicate in real time. The first chapter is based on a bibliographical study of the different methods of measurement that can be used for the detection of pollutants and potential materials for making the sensor. The most suitable measurement technology to answer the first two points of the specification is based on the implementation of acoustic transducers made from PZT with a technological process using the screen-printing technique. After justifying our choice of screen-printing deposition technique, we have detailed in the second chapter the technological process: first with the achievement of PZT ink, then with the masks design, and finally with the steps deposition and functionalization of transducers on alumina substrate and without substrate. From these first achievements, we have submitted the means and characterization tools needed to evaluate the different steps of the technological process set up with a focus on the quality of the PZT material and its piezoelectric properties. It is first about morphological (SEM images, profilometer) and structural (XRD, EDX) studies, and then about the measurement of piezoelectric and dielectric values (piezometer, spectral and impedance analyses). In the third chapter we discussed the sensor, with the production of prototypes based on screen-printed transducers developed in Chapter 2. The sensors were tested and calibrated with solutions of ethanol and toluene. For this, the screen-printed sensors were tested in experimental benches to validate the measurement technique of the acoustic waves time of flight. In view of the miniaturization and the integration of the system, we have set an electronic control board with a dedicated module. Finally in order to improve the measurements, we have shown that we could consider crossing/correlating several parameters. Thus, we have developed a screen-printed sensor for the measurement of the electrical conductivity in aquatic environment. From the first experimental results we validated the principle of the method. In the fourth and final chapter of this manuscript, we presented the first studies and achievements on the LTCC technology. By repeating the process parameters used during deposition on alumina substrate, we realized and characterized transducers placed on on a LTCC ceramic sheet. The first morphological and piezoelectric characterizations are encouraging, and the first acoustic tests have shown that the generations of acoustic waves, and a use for the production of sensors of pollutants were possible with this technology. Finally we have been able to achieve a first 3D structure incorporating an analysis cavity. Here again, results are very encouraging, although "adjustments" are needed to improve the technology. Also this 3D realization opens up many opportunities for the team to develop new sensors.

Este trabalho consiste no desenvolvimento de uma metodologia de projeto ótimo de estruturas ativamente controladas (inteligentes), com o objetivo de suprimir as vibrações induzidas por perturbações externas. O projeto é realizado simultaneamente para a topologia estrutural e a localização de atuadores. O problema de otimização topológica é formulado para três fases materiais (dois materiais sólidos e vazio),com dois grupos de variáveis de projeto. Um material não piezelétrico elástico isotrópico forma a parte puramente estrutural, enquanto um material piezelétrico compõe a parte ativa. Uma vez que não há método eficiente para tratar as variáveis de projeto estruturais e de controle em um mesmo ambiente de otimização, este trabalho propõe uma abordagem de solução aninhada. Nesta solução, o posicionamento dos atuadores e a síntese do sistema controlador são considerados em um laco de projeto paralelo ao processo de otimização que lida com a topologia estrutural. O laço de otimização principal está relacionado `as variáveis de projeto estruturais, ou seja, ´e calculado onde deve haver material sólido e onde deve haver espaços vazios, através de um problema de minimização de flexibilidade. A localização de atuadores ´e determinada por uma otimização baseada em uma lei de controle que define onde o material deve ter propriedades piezelétricas, através da maximização de uma medida de controlabilidade. Os exemplos numéricos mostram que a abordagem utilizada neste trabalho pode produzir uma topologia estrutural bem definida com uma boa colocação para os atuadores. Além disso, as topologias ótimas encontradas são capazes de melhorar o amortecimento ativo da estrutura. / This work develops an optimal design methodology for actively controlled structures, aiming to suppress vibrations induced by external disturbances. Design is conducted simultaneously for the structural topology and actuator placement. A topology optimization problem is formulated for three material phases (two solid materials and void) with two design variables groups. A non-piezoelectric elastic isotropic material forms the structural only part of the design, while a piezoelectric material composes the active part. Since there is no efficient method to treat structural and control design variables in the same optimization framework, this work proposes a nested solution approach, where the actuator locations and controller syntheses are regarded as a parallel design to the main optimization process dealing with the structural topology. The main optimization loop designs the structural variables, i.e., it is decided where there should be solid material and where there should be voids, through a minimum compliance design problem. The actuators are placed by considering a control law optimization that defines where the material should have piezoelectric properties, through the maximization of a measure of controllability. Numerical examples show that the approach used in this paper can produce a clear structural topology with a good actuator placement. Besides, the optimal topologies can improve the active damping.

Multiscale computational simulations are performed to investigate how electronic structure and optical absorption characteristics of recently reported nanostructured III-nitride core-shell MQW solar cells are governed by an intricate coupling of size-quantization, atomicity, and built-in structural and polarization fields. The core computational framework, as available in our in-house QuADS 3-D simulator, is divided into four coupled phases: 1) Geometry construction for the wurtzite lattice having hexagonal crystal symmetry and non-conventional crystal orientations; 2) Structural relaxation and calculation of atomistic strain distributions using the VFF Keating molecular-mechanics model, which employs a conjugate gradient energy minimization scheme; 3) Obtaining the induced polarization and internal potential distributions using a 3-D atomistic Poisson solver; 4) Computing the single-particle electronic structure and optical transition rates using a 10- band sp3 s*-spin tight-binding framework; and 5) Using a TCAD toolkit, study the carrier transport and obtain the device terminal characteristics. Special care was taken in incorporating the nonpolar m-plane crystallographic orientation within the simulator via appropriate lattice vectors, rotational matrices, neighboring atom co-ordinates and sp3-hybridized passivation scheme. Numerical calculations of electronic structure properties are generally based on non-primitive rectangular unit cell. The rectangular geometry approximation is still valid and can be considered even in the presence of strain in nanostructures such as quantum wells, nanowires, and even in self-assembled quantum dots with varying composition. With this approximation, atoms are grouped into traditional unit cells resulting in simpler analysis and better storage scheme, which results in more dynamic and easily debugged algorithms. Note that the contribution of the second-order piezoelectric polarization is small in the nonpolar m-plane structure (as compared to the polar c-plane counterpart) and was neglected in this study. Besides, the spontaneous polarization is non-existent in m-plane structure. The polarization fields are incorporated in the Hamiltonian as an external potential within a non-self-consistent approximation. From the simulations, it is found that, even without the inclusion of any internal fields, the crystal symmetry is lowered compared to ideal geometries, which is due mainly to the fundamental atomicity and interface discontinuities. However, with the inclusion of internal polarization fields, although the symmetry is lowered further, the m-plane structure exhibits a stronger overlap and localization of the wavefunctions, as compared to the c-plane counterpart. Importantly, strain, in the m-plane structure, causes a larger splitting of the topmost valence band and the interband transition probability involving the 4th valence band was found to be highest. Overall, the m-plane structure offers higher spontaneous emission rate and internal quantum efficiency (IQE) as well as an improved fill-factor.

Le domaine de l’assistance cardiaque connait actuellement une rupture technologique avec l’apparition du pacemaker sans fil. Grâce à ces nouveaux dispositifs, la prise en charge des patients est simplifiée. En outre, la suppression des sondes devenues obsolètes devrait permettre une réduction drastique des problèmes rencontrés avec les pacemakers traditionnels. Cependant, la question de l’alimentation reste posée. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous tentons d’apporter une solution à base de microgénérateur piézoélectrique inertiel récupérant une portion de l’énergie vibratoire des battements cardiaques. La démarche suivie consiste tout d’abord à définir le besoin et la pertinence d’une solution à base de récupérateur d’énergie. Nous analysons ensuite l’allure de signaux cardiaques qui ont été enregistrés à l’aide d’accéléromètres directement positionnés sur le site de stimulation. On montre ainsi que le gisement vibratoire adressé (i.e. les battements cardiaques) imposent des récupérateurs vibrant aux alentours de 16 Hz. Ces fréquences sont extrêmement faibles en comparaison des microgénérateurs présentés dans la littérature (typ. > 100 Hz). Dans un second temps, et indépendamment de considérations purement technologiques, nous établissons, à l’aide de modèles analytiques et numériques, le dimensionnement optimal permettant de répondre simultanément aux spécifications dimensionnelles et au niveau de puissance récoltée nécessaire. Cette phase d’optimisation montre qu’un compromis entre fréquence de résonance et puissance délivrée doit être fait et, plus particulièrement, que celui-ci conduit à l’expression d’un besoin en termes d’épaisseur de couches piézoélectriques auquel aucune des technologies standards ne permet de répondre. Nous présentons, dans ce manuscrit, les travaux qui ont ainsi été menés pour développer une technique de réalisation de couches épaisses de PZT (typ. 15 à 100 µm) par amincissement de céramiques massives. Ce mode de réalisation est enfin mis en œuvre pour la fabrication d’un démonstrateur à l’échelle, de type poutre encastrée-libre bimorphe vibrant à 16 Hz. Nous montrons finalement que les résultats obtenus à partir de battements cardiaques reproduits en laboratoire (10-15 µW) sont en ligne avec les besoins exprimés pour la mise en œuvre d’une solution d’alimentation pour pacemaker sans fil. Ce travail de thèse a été conduit dans le cadre du projet HBS (Heart Beat Scavenging) notamment en collaboration avec la société LivaNova-Sorin CRM (Cardiac Rythm Management). Il est fortement probable que la décision initiale d’articuler l’ensemble de tâches accomplies autour des besoins de l’utilisateur final soit une des clés de la réussite de ce travail. En effet, les démonstrateurs développés dans ce travail de thèse ont, par la suite, été testés avec succès sur l’animal. Ils ont également donné lieu à un nouveau projet dont un des objectifs est d’adresser les aspects de fiabilité et de vieillissement. Ces nouvelles tâches correspondent ainsi à la poursuite de la montée en TRL (Technology Readiness Level) vers les étapes de pré-industrialisation. / The field of cardiac assistance is currently experiencing a new technological breakthrough with the introduction of the leadless pacemaker. With these new devices, the care of patients is simplified. Furthermore, removal of the leads should allow a drastic reduction of the problems encountered with conventional pacemakers. However, the question of the energy supply remains. In this thesis, we try to provide a solution based on piezoelectric inertial micro-generator in order to harvest a portion of the heartbeat vibrational energy. The approach is to first define the need and relevance of a solution based on energy scavenging. We then analyze the cardiac signals that were recorded using accelerometers positioned directly on the stimulation site. It is shown that the addressed vibration source (i.e. heartbeats) impose the devices to vibrate at around 16 Hz. These frequencies are extremely low compared to microgenerators presented in the literature (typ.> 100 Hz). Secondly, regardless of technological considerations, and using analytical and numerical models, we identify the optimal device dimensions in order to simultaneously meet the specifications in terms of size and required harvested power. This optimization phase shows that a trade-off between resonant frequency and output power must be made and, more particularly, that it leads to the expression of a need in terms of piezoelectric layer thickness to which none of the standard technologies can currently answer. Therefore, we present the work that has been undertaken to develop a technique for producing thick layers of PZT (typ. 15 to 100 µm) by the thinning and the polishing of bulk ceramics. Then, this technique is implemented for the fabrication of our demonstrator: a cantilever of bimorph type vibrating at 16 Hz. Finally, we show that the obtained results (10-15 µW) from heartbeats reproduced in the laboratory are in line with the expressed needs for the implementation of an energy supply solution for leadless pacemakers. This thesis work has been conducted in the frame of the HBS project (Heart Beat Scavenging) especially in collaboration with the company LivaNova - Sorin CRM (Cardiac Rhythm Management). It is highly believed that the original decision to articulate all the tasks that we performed around the end user needs was a key to the success of this work. Indeed, the demonstrators developed in this thesis have subsequently been successfully tested on animals. They also led to a new project whose objectives are to address the reliability and aging of these demonstrators. These new tasks correspond to the continuation of the TRL increase (Technology Readiness Level) to the stages of pre-industrialization.

Ce travail de thèse porte sur l'étude de composites magnétoélectriques laminaires dans le but de réaliser des dispositifs innovants intégrés sur silicium tel que l'inductance RF variable. Grâce au couplage mécanique entre des couches adjacentes magnétostrictive ultra douce et piézoélectrique, il est possible d'obtenir un couplage magnétoélectrique indirect qui est supérieur de plusieurs ordres de grandeur à celui des matériaux multiferroïques naturels. Dans un premier temps, nous avons utilisé l'approche phénoménologique basée sur les énergies pour décrire le panorama des effets attendus dans des composites magnétoélectriques laminaires (multicouches). Ensuite, des composites magnétoélectriques macroscopiques à base de substrats piézoélectriques de type MFC et de couches minces de FeCoB ont été réalisés. L'étude du couplage magnétoélectrique en fonction de la composition de FeCoB a permis de déterminer les propriétés clés des matériaux, notamment le rapport λs/Ms, qui sont essentielles pour obtenir un effet magnétoélectrique élevé. Un coefficient magnétoélectrique record de 250 V∙cm‐1Oe‐1 a été obtenu. Par ailleurs, un microscope à effet Kerr a été spécialement développé pour pouvoir observer de manière quasi-instantanée la modification de la structure en domaines sous l'effet de la tension électrique dans ces composites. Pour la première fois, l'observation directe de la rotation de l'axe facile d'aimantation sous commande électrique a été réalisée. La deuxième partie de ce manuscrit est consacrée à la conception, simulation, fabrication et caractérisation d'un dispositif MEMS hybride d'inductance variable intégrée. Ce dispositif exploite l'effet magnétoélectrique indirect entre un élément moteur en PZT (sol gel) et un élément inductif à base de FeCoB. Etant donné le caractère multiphysique hors norme de ce dispositif, un ensemble de tests électriques, mécaniques, optiques et magnétiques a été déployé tout au long de la fabrication. Les résultats concluent à une preuve de concept partiellement fonctionnelle en raison principalement d'une mauvaise gestion des contraintes internes liées à la fabrication. Les pistes d'amélioration aux niveaux du design, des matériaux et des procédés sont identifiées. / This work is focused on the study of laminated magnetoelectric composites aiming at the realization of novel components integrated on silicon, such as variable inductors. Thanks to the mechanical coupling between two adjacent layers of ultra-soft magnetostrictive and piezoelectric materials it is possible to obtain an indirect magnetoelectric effect which is several orders of magnitude higher than in natural multiferroics. Firstly, we used an energy-based phenomenological approach to describe a range of expected effects in such laminated magnetoelectric composites. Thereupon, macroscopic magnetoelectric composites based on piezoelectric MFC substrates and magnetostrictive thin films of FeCoB were realized. The study of the magnetoelectric coupling vs. FeCoB composition leads to the identification of the key material parameters, such as λs/Ms, that are essential for high magnetoelectric effect. A record magnetoelectric coefficient of 250 V∙cm‐1Oe‐1 is obtained. In parallel, a specific Kerr effect microscope devoted to live observation of the magnetic domains change vs. applied electrical field was developed. For the first time, direct observation of the magnetic easy-axis rotation with voltage in such composites is reported. The second part of this work concerns the design, simulation, fabrication and characterization of a hybrid MEMS variable inductor. This device exploits the indirect magnetoelectric effect between a PZT sol gel driving element and a FeCoB-based inductive element. The unusual multi-physics nature of the device prompted us to deploy a set of electrical, mechanical, optical and magnetic tests throughout the manufacturing. The results conclude with partially functional proof of concept, mainly due to the lack of management of internal stress during the fabrication. Areas for improvement of design, materials and process are identified.

Este trabalho consiste no desenvolvimento de uma metodologia de projeto ótimo de estruturas ativamente controladas (inteligentes), com o objetivo de suprimir as vibrações induzidas por perturbações externas. O projeto é realizado simultaneamente para a topologia estrutural e a localização de atuadores. O problema de otimização topológica é formulado para três fases materiais (dois materiais sólidos e vazio),com dois grupos de variáveis de projeto. Um material não piezelétrico elástico isotrópico forma a parte puramente estrutural, enquanto um material piezelétrico compõe a parte ativa. Uma vez que não há método eficiente para tratar as variáveis de projeto estruturais e de controle em um mesmo ambiente de otimização, este trabalho propõe uma abordagem de solução aninhada. Nesta solução, o posicionamento dos atuadores e a síntese do sistema controlador são considerados em um laco de projeto paralelo ao processo de otimização que lida com a topologia estrutural. O laço de otimização principal está relacionado `as variáveis de projeto estruturais, ou seja, ´e calculado onde deve haver material sólido e onde deve haver espaços vazios, através de um problema de minimização de flexibilidade. A localização de atuadores ´e determinada por uma otimização baseada em uma lei de controle que define onde o material deve ter propriedades piezelétricas, através da maximização de uma medida de controlabilidade. Os exemplos numéricos mostram que a abordagem utilizada neste trabalho pode produzir uma topologia estrutural bem definida com uma boa colocação para os atuadores. Além disso, as topologias ótimas encontradas são capazes de melhorar o amortecimento ativo da estrutura. / This work develops an optimal design methodology for actively controlled structures, aiming to suppress vibrations induced by external disturbances. Design is conducted simultaneously for the structural topology and actuator placement. A topology optimization problem is formulated for three material phases (two solid materials and void) with two design variables groups. A non-piezoelectric elastic isotropic material forms the structural only part of the design, while a piezoelectric material composes the active part. Since there is no efficient method to treat structural and control design variables in the same optimization framework, this work proposes a nested solution approach, where the actuator locations and controller syntheses are regarded as a parallel design to the main optimization process dealing with the structural topology. The main optimization loop designs the structural variables, i.e., it is decided where there should be solid material and where there should be voids, through a minimum compliance design problem. The actuators are placed by considering a control law optimization that defines where the material should have piezoelectric properties, through the maximization of a measure of controllability. Numerical examples show that the approach used in this paper can produce a clear structural topology with a good actuator placement. Besides, the optimal topologies can improve the active damping.

A conversão de energia de vibração disponível no ambiente em energia elétrica tem sido investigada por diversos pesquisadores nos últimos anos. O objetivo é alimentar sistemas de baixo consumo convertendo energia mecânica disponível no ambiente em energia elétrica. A literatura recente mostra que a transdução piezelétrica tem recebido a maior atenção para a conversão de vibrações em eletricidade. Na prática, vigas e placas engastadas com camadas de piezocerâmicas são utilizadas como geradores piezelétricos de energia. Os geradores têm dimensões de placas em alguns casos e a previsão da potência elétrica devido à excitação de base requer uma formulação de placas. Neste trabalho, um modelo por elementos finitos (EF) eletromecanicamente acoplado é apresentado para a previsão da potência elétrica obtida a partir de geradores piezelétricos de energia. Para corpos eletroelásticos, o princípio generalizado de Hamilton é utilizado e o modelo EF é obtido a partir das hipóteses de placas de Kirchhoff, já que os geradores piezelétricos de energia são estruturas tipicamente finas. A presença de eletrodos contínuos é levada em conta no modelo EF. As previsões do modelo EF são verificadas a partir de uma solução analítica para um gerador unimorph e também a partir de resultados analíticos e experimentais para um gerador bimorph em série com uma massa concentrada encontrados na literatura. Nestes casos uma carga resistiva é utilizada no domínio elétrico. O comportamento piezo-elástico de um gerador bimorph em paralelo é investigado com um circuito resistivo no domínio elétrico. / Vibration-based energy harvesting has been investigated by several researchers over the last ten years. The goal is to power small electronic components by converting the waste mechanical energy available in their environment into electrical energy. Recent literature shows that piezoelectric transduction has received the most attention for vibration-to-electricity conversion. In practice, cantilevered beams and plates with piezoceramic layers are employed as piezoelectric energy harvesters. Aspect ratios of piezoelectric energy harvesters in several cases are plate-like and predicting the power output to base excitations requires a plate-type formulation. In this work, an electromechanically coupled finite element (FE) plate model is presented for predicting the electrical power output of piezoelectric energy harvesters. For electroelastic bodies the generalized Hamilton\'s principle is used and the FE model is based from the Kirchhoff plate assumptions as typical piezoelectric energy harvesters are thin structures. Presence of conductive electrodes is taken into account in the FE model. The predictions of the FE model are verified against the analytical solution for a unimorph cantilever and then against the experimental and analytical results of a bimorph in series cantilever with a tip mass reported in the literature. A load resistance is considered in the electrical domain. The piezoelastic behavior of a bimorph in parallel harvester is investigated for energy generation using a load resistance in the electrical domain.

A conversão de vibrações aeroelásticas em eletricidade para a geração de pequenas quantidades de potência tem recebido cada vez mais atenção nos últimos anos. Além de aplicações em potencial para estruturas aeroespaciais, o objetivo é desenvolver configurações alternativas para a coleta de energia do escoamento e usá-las em sistemas eletrônicos sem fio. O uso de uma seção típica é uma abordagem conveniente para criar instabilidades e oscilações persistentes na coleta aeroelástica de energia. Este trabalho analisa as versões linear e não linear de dois geradores aeroelásticos de energia baseados em aerofólio que utilizam transdução piezelétrica: (1) com dois graus de liberdade (GDL) e (2) com três GDL. As equações governantes eletroaeroelásticas adimensionais são dadas em cada caso com uma carga resistiva no domínio elétrico para a previsão do comportamento do sistema. Primeiro, a interação entre a geração piezelétrica de potência e os comportamentos aeroelásticos linear e não linear de uma seção típica com 2-GDL é investigada para um conjunto de cargas resistivas. As previsões do modelo são comparadas com dados experimentais obtidos em ensaios em túnel de vento na condição de flutter. No segundo estudo de caso, uma não linearidade bilinear é adicionada ao GDL de rotação da seção típica. Mostra-se que oscilações não lineares em ciclo limite podem ser obtidas abaixo da velocidade linear de flutter. As simulações do modelo previram com sucesso os resultados experimentais. Finalmente, a combinação das não linearidades rigidez cúbica (do tipo que se torna mais rígida proporcionalmente ao cubo do deslocamento) e bilinear é considerada no GDL de rotação da seção típica. A resposta piezoaeroelástica não linear é investigada para diferentes valores da razão entre a rigidez não linear e a rigidez linear. A não linearidade bilinear reduz a velocidade em que oscilações persistentes aparecem enquanto que a rigidez cúbica contribui para com a obtenção de oscilações persistentes de amplitude aceitável em uma faixa mais ampla de velocidades do escoamento. Em seguida, os comportamentos piezoaeroelásticos linear e não linear de uma seção típica com 3-GDL são investigados. A não linearidade bilinear é adicionada ao GDL de rotação da superfície de controle. Mostra-se que oscilações não lineares em ciclo limite podem ser obtidas em uma faixa de velocidades do escoamento. No último caso, a não linearidade cúbica é modelada no GDL de rotação da seção típica (além da não linearidade bilinear na superfície de controle) e oscilações de amplitude limitada são obtidas em uma faixa de velocidades do escoamento. Não linearidades concentradas podem ser introduzidas em geradores aeroelásticos de energia (que utilizam transdução piezelétrica ou outro mecanismo transdutor) para melhoria do desempenho do sistema. / Converting aeroelastic vibrations into electricity for low power generation has received growing attention over the past few years. In addition to potential applications for aerospace structures, the goal is to develop alternative and scalable configurations for wind energy harvesting to use in wireless electronic systems. The use of a typical airfoil section is a convenient approach to create instabilities and persistent oscillations in aeroelastic energy harvesting. This work analyzes the linear and non linear versions of two airfoil-based aeroelastic energy harvesters using piezoelectric transduction: (1) with two degrees of freedom (DOF) and (2) with three DOF. The governing dimensionless electroaeroelastic equations are given in each case with a resistive load in the electrical domain for predicting the system behavior. First the interaction between piezoelectric power generation and linear and non linear aeroelastic behavior of a typical section with 2-DOF is investigated for a set of resistive loads. Model predictions are compared to experimental data obtained from the wind tunnel tests at the flutter boundary. In the second case study, free play nonlinearity is added to the pitch DOF and it is shown that nonlinear limitcycle oscillations can be obtained below the linear flutter speed. The experimental results are successfully predicted by the model simulations. Finally, the combination of cubic hardening stiffness and free play nonlinearities is considered in the pitch DOF. The nonlinear piezoaeroelastic response is investigated for different values of the nonlinear-to-linear stiffness ratio. The free play nonlinearity reduces the cut-in speed while the hardening stiffness helps in obtaining persistent oscillations of acceptable amplitude over a wider range of airflow speeds. Later the linear and non linear piezoaeroelastic behavior of a typical section with 3-DOF is investigated. Free play nonlinearity is added to the control surface DOF and it is shown that nonlinear limit-cycle oscillations can be obtained over a range of airflow speeds. In the last case cubic hardening nonlinearity is modeled in the pitch DOF (in addition to the free play in the control surface) and bounded oscillations are obtained for a range of airflow speeds. Concentrated nonlinearities can be introduced to aeroelastic energy harvesters (exploiting piezoelectric or other transduction mechanisms) for performance enhancement.

Os materiais inteligentes têm sido utilizados em problemas de controle de vibrações e conversão de energia mecânica em energia elétrica. Apesar das diferentes opções existentes, os piezelétricos têm recebido grande atenção devido a facilidade de instalação, além de possibilidade de uso como sensores ou atuadores. Em termos de sistemas de controle utilizando materiais piezelétricos, dois grandes grupos podem ser encontrados: os controladores passivos e os ativos. Os controladores ativos utilizam o efeito piezelétrico inverso e apresentam bom desempenho na redução de vibrações. Entretanto, apresentam desvantagens relacionadas à complexidades de uma lei de controle, necessidade de equipamentos externos e, potencialmente, exigem elevada potência de atuação. Por outro lado, os controladores passivos utilizam circuitos elétricos simples, compostos somente por elementos elétricos passivos. Apesar de serem de fácil implementação prática, apresentam bom desempenho em faixas restritas de frequências. Os controladores semi-passivos, surgiram como uma alternativa aos pontos negativos dos controladores passivos e ativos. Nestes novos sistemas, o material piezelétrico instalado na estrutura a ser controlada é conectado e desconectado a um circuito shunt de forma sincronizada com as vibrações mecânicas. Em geral, a conversão eletromecânica de energia é amplificada, assim como o efeito shunt damping. Dessa forma, os circuitos chaveados têm sido utilizados tanto como controladores semi-passivos quanto em problemas de coleta piezelétrica de energia. Neste trabalho, o controle piezelétrico semi-passivo de oscilações aeroelásticas lineares e não lineares, assim como a coleta piezelétrica de energia a partir das mesmas condições, são investigados experimentalmente. Uma seção típica com dois graus de liberdade e acoplamento eletromecânico é utilizada nos experimentos. Dois tratamentos não lineares do sinal elétrico proveniente dos piezelétricos são utilizados. Primeiro, o chaveamento a partir da condição de circuito aberto para uma resistência muito baixa, próxima ao curto circuito, e posteriormente, o chaveamento da condição de circuito aberto para um indutor. Um circuito chaveador autônomo (que não depende de fontes externas de energia) é apresentado. O desempenho dos dois sistemas no controle de flutter, e também de oscilações em ciclo limite, são discutidos. Os resultados mostraram um aumento na velocidade de flutter de até 8,8% e 11,5%, com chaveamento em uma resistência e em um indutor, respectivamente. No caso de coleta de energia a partir de oscilações aeroelásticas lineares e não lineares, o desempenho dos circuitos chaveados são comparados entre si, e com o caso em que uma resistência é considerada no domínio elétrico, resultando em um aumento da potência elétrica de até 101%, para chaveamentos em resistência, e 227%, para chaveamentos em um indutor. / Smart materials have been used in vibration control and also in energy harvesting problems. Although different materials are available, piezoelectric one has received most attention due to ease of installation and possibility of use as sensors or actuators. In general, there are two large categories of vibration control techniques using piezoelectric materials: passive and active control. In active control the reverse piezoelectric effect is used. In general, they present good performance in vibration reduction over a range of frequencies. However, active control has the disadvantages of additional complexities of a control law, additional hardware and the potentially large amount of power required. On the other hand, piezoelectric passive controllers use simple electric circuits composed by passive electrical elements. Although they are simple to implement, the performance of the controlled system is sensitive to the exciting frequency. The semi-passive controllers are a recent alternative to the drawbacks of passive and active controllers. In semi-passive systems, the piezoelectric element is switched in and out of a shunt impedance, in a synchronous way with mechanical vibrations. In general, the electromechanical energy conversion is enhanced as well as the shunt effect damping. Therefore, the switching techniques have been used both in semi-passive control problems and in piezoelectric energy harvesting problems. In this work, semi-passive techniques are experimentally investigated in aeroelastic control and piezoaeroelastic energy harvesting cases. An electromechanically coupled aeroelastic typical section is used in the experiments. Two techniques are investigated, the synchronized switching damping on short and the synchronized switching damping on inductor. An autonomous switching circuit (that does not requires external source of energy) is presented resulting in a self-powered flutter controller. The performance of the two semi-passive techniques is discussed for the linear case, flutter control, as well as limit cycle oscillations control. The linear flutter speed is increased by 8.8% and 11.5% when the SSDS and SSDI techniques are used, respectively. In the case of energy harvesting from linear and nonlinear aeroelastic oscillations, the performance of switching techniques is investigated and compared to the case of simple load resistance in the electrical domain. The power output is increased by 101% for the SSDS case and 227% for SSDI case.