Des modifications physiologiques importantes interviennent au cours de la grossesse. Ces modifications ont un impact sur la pharmacocinétique et/ou la pharmacodynamique des traitements administrés. Chez la femme infectée par le virus du VIH, un traitement antirétroviral adéquat et efficace est indispensable pour la santé de la mère et pour assurer la prévention de la transmission du virus au nouveau-né. Pour un traitement optimal, en termes d’efficacité et de non-toxicité, la connaissance de l’effet de la grossesse sur les concentrations des antirétroviraux chez la mère ainsi que leur passage transplacentaire est primordiale. Dans cette thèse nous avons utilisé une méthodologie adaptée pour cette population : la modélisation non linéaire à effets mixtes. Des données de suivi thérapeutique pharmacologique, ainsi que les données d’un essai clinique multicentrique (TEmAA) ont été analysées grâce à deux logiciel : NONMEM et Monolix.Dans la première étude présentée, nous nous sommes intéressés à la pharmacocinétique dutenofovir chez la femme enceinte. Nous avons mis en évidence un effet relativement important de la grossesse, en effet une augmentation de 39% de la clairance est observée chezla femme enceinte et la femme parturiente. Une augmentation de la dose serait donc souhaitable chez ces femmes. Dans la deuxième étude, nous avons mis en évidence une légère augmentation de l’exposition à la lamivudine au cours de la grossesse, ne nécessitant pas d’adaptation de posologie. Dans la troisième étude, les concentrations de névirpaine chez la mère et son nouveau-né ont été analysées et le schéma d’administration a été évalué.Dans la dernière étude, à partir des concentrations de tenofovir et d’emtricitabine dans le lait maternel qui sont ici reportées pour la première fois chez l’homme, nous avons simulé les profils de concentrations obtenus chez le nourrisson. / Important physiological changes occur during pregnancy. These changes may affect the pharmacokinetics and/or pharmacodynamics of the administered medication. In HIV infected women, antiretroviral treatment adequacy and effectiveness is essential for the health of the mother and for the prevention of HIV transmission to the newborn. For optimal treatment interms of efficacy and tolerance, the effect of pregnancy on antiretroviral concentrations in themother and their transplacental passage have to be assessed.In this work we used the appropriate methodology in this population: non linear mixed effects modeling. Data from therapeutic drug monitoring, as well as data from a multicenter clinical trial (TEmAA) were analyzed using: NONMEM or Monolix. In the first study presented, we investigated the pharmacokinetics of tenofovir in pregnant women. We observed a relatively large effect of pregnancy, a 39% increase of the apparent clearance in pregnant and parturient woman. A dose increase should be therefore investigated in these women. In the second study, we demonstrated a slight increase in lamivudine exposure during pregnancy. This increase does not require dose adjustment. In the third study, the concentration of nevirapinein the mother and her newborn were analyzed and the administration scheme was evaluated.In the last study, based on concentrations of tenofovir and emtricitabine in breast milk that arereported here for the first time in humans, we simulated the concentration profiles obtained ininfants.

Pentamidine is used to treat Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. The incidence of this infection in pregnancy has paralleled the increasing incidence of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in pregnancy. Using the in vitro bidirectionally perfused human placenta, we studied the transfer of pentamidine across the placenta. Pentamidine was added to the maternal circulation at therapeutic concentrations (2 wg/ml). No transfer of pentamidine was detectable with a newly devised high-performance liquid chromatography method sensitive to 0.05 wg/ml of pentamidine. Increasing the pentamidine concentration tenfold produced a low level of transfer to the fetal circuit. Fetal concentrations were far below maternal perfusate concentrations. Placental tissue levels were higher than media levels. These data are suggestive of minimal drug transfer to the fetus and significant concentration of the drug in placental tissue. (Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;160:759-61.)

Interações medicamentosas envolvendo a glicoproteína-P (P-gp) intestinal e placentária são determinantes na disposição cinética e transferência placentária de medicamentos durante a gestação. A fexofenadina, fármaco anti-histamínico, está disponível na clínica como racemato com indicação de uso durante a gravidez para o tratamento da rinite alérgica sazonal e urticária crônica. Considerando a fexofenadina como um substrato da P-gp e a fluoxetina, fármaco antidepressivo indicado durante a gravidez, um inibidor da P-gp, o presente estudo investiga a influência da fluoxetina na disposição cinética enantiosseletiva da fexofenadina em parturientes e suas relações com a transferência placentária in vivo e ex vivo. No estudo in vivo foram investigadas 16 parturientes, sendo 8 incluídas no grupo Controle e 8 incluídas no grupo Interação. Todas as parturientes investigadas receberam dose única oral de 60mg de fexofenadina racêmica, enquanto as parturientes do grupo Interação receberam também dose única oral de 40mg de fluoxetina racêmica 3 h antes da administração da fexofenadina. As amostras seriadas de sangue e urina foram colhidas até 48 h após a administração da fexofenadina. Na resolução do parto (2-3 h após a administração da fexofenadina) foram coletadas simultaneamente amostras de sangue materno, venoso e arterial do cordão umbilical e do espaço interviloso placentário. No modelo ex vivo, a farmacocinética transplacentária dos enantiômeros da fexofenadina foi avaliada em 4 lóbulos de placenta humana. Os enantiômeros da fexofenadina foram determinados nas amostras de plasma, urina e solução de perfusão placentária por LC-MS/MS acoplado a coluna de fase estacionária quiral Chirobiotic® V. A análise farmacocinética foi realizada empregando o programa WinNonlin e os testes estatísticos foram realizados com o auxílio do programa R. A disposição cinética da fexofenadina é enantiosseletiva no plasma materno com maiores valores de AUC0-? (423,20 vs 267,67 ng×h/mL) e menores valores de volume de distribuição aparente (621,37 vs 889,83 L), clearance total aparente (66,20 vs 105,05 L/h) e clearance renal aparente (5,25 vs 8,78 L/h) para o distômero (R)-(+)-fexofenadina. A transferência placentária da fexofenadina é limitada com razões de concentrações plasmáticas veia umbilical/veia materna de aproximadamente 0,16 para ambos os enantiômeros. As razões enantioméricas R-(+)/S-(-) de aproximadamente 1,7 nos compartimentos materno e fetal sugerem que a P-gp placentária não discrimina entre os enantiômeros da fexofenadina. A administração de dose única oral de 40 mg de fluoxetina racêmica 3 h antes da administração da fexofenadina aumentou os valores de AUC0-? (376,09 vs 267,67 ng×h/mL) e reduziu os valores de clearance total aparente (74,37 vs 105,05 L/h) e clearance renal aparente (3,50 vs 8,78 L/h) somente para o eutômero (S)-(-)-fexofenadina, inferindo inibição enantiosseletiva da P-gp intestinal. A administração de dose única oral de 40 mg de fluoxetina racêmica 3 h antes da administração da fexofenadina [concentrações plasmáticas materna no momento da extração fetal de 11, 9, 7 e 3 ng/mL, respectivamente para os enantiômeros (S)-(+)-fluoxetina, (R)-(-)-fluoxetina, (S)-(+)-norfluoxetina e (R)-(-)-norfluoxetina] não altera as razões de concentrações plasmáticas veia umbilical/veia materna e as razões enantioméricas R-(+)/S-(-) nos compartimentos materno e fetal. No modelo ex vivo, a transferência placentária da fexofenadina é lenta e limitada com razões de concentrações reservatório ii fetal/reservatório materno de aproximadamente 0,18 para ambos os enantiômeros. As razões enantioméricas R-(+)/S-(-) de aproximadamente 1,0 nos compartimentos materno e fetal confirmam que a P-gp placentária não discrimina entre os enantiômeros da fexofenadina. As concentrações clinicamente relevantes de 50 ng de cada enantiômero da fluoxetina/mL não alteram as razões de concentrações reservatório fetal/reservatório materno, a velocidade de transferência placentária e as razões enantioméricas R-(+)/S-(-) nos compartimentos materno e fetal. As razões de concentrações dos enantiômeros da fexofenadina reservatório fetal/reservatório materno obtidas no modelo ex vivo são similares às razões obtidas no estudo clínico de concentrações plasmáticas veia umbilical/veia materna, inferindo a validade do modelo ex vivo de predição da transferência placentária in vivo dos enantiômeros da fexofenadina. Concluindo, os estudos in vivo e ex vivo permitem inferir que a fluoxetina inibe de maneira enantiosseletiva a P-gp intestinal e não inibe a P-gp placentária em concentrações clinicamente relevantes / Drug-drug interaction on the intestinal and placental P-glycoprotein (P-gp) plays an important role in the kinetics disposition and placental transfer of drugs during pregnancy. Fexofenadine is an antihistamine drug for seasonal allergic rhinitis and chronic urticaria treatment during pregnancy and it is available as a racemic mixture. Taken together fexofenadine as a P-gp substrate and fluoxetine, antidepressant drug used in pregnancy, as a P-gp inhibitor, this study asses the effect of fluoxetine on the enantioselective kinetic disposition of fexofenadine in pregnant women at term and their relationships with in vivo and ex vivo transplacental transfer. The in vivo study investigated 16 parturients, 8 included in Control group and 8 included in Interaction group. All of parturients received 60 mg of racemic fexofenadine in a single oral dose, while Interaction group subjects were also given 40 mg of racemic fluoxetine in a single oral dose 3 h before fexofenadine administration. Serial blood and urine samples were collected for 48 h after fexofenadine administration. Maternal blood, venous and arterial umbilical cord blood, as well as placental intervillous space blood samples were simultaneously collected at delivery (2-3 h after fexofenadine administration). The transplacental pharmacokinetics of fexofenadine enantiomers was assayed in 4 placental lobule using ex vivo placental perfusion model. Fexofenadine enantiomers were determined in plasma, urine and placental perfusate samples by LC-MS/MS equipped with the chiral column Chirobiotic® V. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined using WinNonlin and statistical analyses were performed using R statistical software. Fexofenadine kinetics disposition is enantioselective in maternal plasma with higher AUC0-? values (423.20 vs. 267.67 ng×h/mL) and lower apparent volume of distribution values (621.37 vs. 889.83 L), apparent total clearance (66.20 vs. 105.05 L/h) and apparent renal clearance (5.25 vs. 8.78 L/h) for (R)-(+)-fexofenadine distomer. Fexofenadine placental transfer is limited, with umbilical vein/maternal vein plasma concentration ratios of approximately 0.16 for both enantiomers. R-(+)/S-(-) enantiomeric ratios of approximately 1.7 in both maternal and fetal compartments indicate that placental P-gp might not have ability of fexofenadine\'s chiral discrimination. Single oral dose administration of 40 mg of racemic fluoxetine 3 h before fexofenadine administration increased AUC0-? values (376.09 vs. 267.67 ng×h/mL) and lowered both apparent total clearance values (74.37 vs. 105.05 L/h) and apparent renal clearance (3.50 vs. 8.78 L/h) only for (S)-(-)-fexofenadine eutomer, inferring intestinal P-gp enantioselective inhibition. Single oral dose administration of 40 mg of racemic fluoxetine 3 h before fexofenadine administration [maternal plasma concentrations at delivery of 11, 9, 7 and 3 ng/mL for (S)-(+)-fluoxetine, (R)-(-)-fluoxetine, (S)-(+)-norfluoxetine and (R)-(-)-norfluoxetine enantiomers, respectively] does not change either umbilical vein/maternal vein plasma concentration ratios or R-(+)/S-(-) enantiomeric ratios in maternal and fetal compartments. In the ex vivo model, placental transfer of fexofenadine is slow and limited, presenting fetal/maternal reservoirs concentration ratios of approximately 0.18 for both enantiomers. R-(+)/S-(-) enantiomeric ratios of approximately 1.0 on maternal and fetal compartments confirm placental P-gp does not have ability of fexofenadine\'s chiral discrimination. Clinically relevant concentrations of 50 ng of each fluoxetine enantiomer/mL neither alter fetal/maternal reservoirs concentration ratios, placental transfer rate nor R-(+)/S-(-) enantiomeric ratios in maternal and fetal iv compartments. Fetal/maternal reservoirs concentration ratios of fexofenadine enantiomers obtained in the ex vivo model are similar to those obtained in the clinical study of umbilical vein/maternal vein plasma concentrations, implying the validity of ex vivo model to predict placental transfer of fexofenadine enantiomers in vivo. In conclusion, both in vivo and ex vivo studies allow us to infer that fluoxetine enantioselectively inhibits intestinal P-gp and yet does not inhibit placental P-gp at clinically relevant concentrations.

O lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/RTV) são os inibidores de proteases mais utilizados em mulheres grávidas portadoras do vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV). O LPV, um fármaco substrato do transportador de efluxo glicoproteína P (P-gp), apresenta uma baixa e variável biodisponibilidade oral devido ao extenso metabolismo dependente do CYP3A4 hepático e intestinal. No entanto, o LPV é co-administrado com o RTV, um potente inibidor do metabolismo mediado pelo CYP3A4 e um potente inibidor do transportador P-gp. O estudo investiga a disposição cinética do LPV e do RTV no plasma materno de gestantes portadoras do HIV assim como a transferência placentária de ambos os fármacos. Foram investigadas 7 pacientes no terceiro trimestre de gestação em tratamento com 400 mg de LPV e 100 mg de RTV a cada 12 h. As amostras seriadas de sangue materno foram coletadas até 12 h após a administração do LPV/RTV. No momento do parto, também foram coletadas, simultaneamente, amostras de sangue materno e sangue do cordão umbilical para determinar a taxa de transferência placentária do LPV/RTV. O método de análise simultânea do LPV e RTV em plasma foi desenvolvido e validado empregando LC-MS/MS. As amostras de plasma (100 ?L) foram adicionadas de antipirina como padrão interno e submetidas à extração líquido-líquido com éter metil terc-butílico. A separação do LPV, RTV e padrão interno foi obtida na coluna de fase reversa C18e com fase móvel constituída de acetonitrila, água e ácido fórmico (50:50:0,1, v/v/v) na vazão de 1,3 mL/min. O método não apresenta efeito matriz, é linear no intervalo de 6,40 ng/mL-12,50 ?g/mL para o LPV e 3,20 ng/mL- 12,50 ?g/mL para o RTV e os limites inferiores de quantificação são de 6,40 ng/mL para o LPV e 3,20 ng/mL para o RTV. Os coeficientes de variação e os erros padrão relativos obtidos nos estudos de precisão e exatidão intra e intercorridas foram inferiores a 15% para ambos os compostos. A análise farmacocinética foi realizada empregando o programa WinNonlin e os testes estatísticos foram realizados com o auxílio do programa GraphPad Prisma. Os seguintes parâmetros farmacocinéticos foram obtidos para o LPV (dados expressos como medianas) durante o terceiro trimestre da gestação: Cmax 14,63 ?g/mL, tmax 4,0 h, AUC0-12 95,21 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 6,72 h, Cl/F 4,20 L/h e Vd/F 37,91 L. Em relação ao RTV, foram obtidos os seguintes valores: Cmax 0,64 ?g/mL, tmax 4,0 h, AUC0-12 4,47 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 3,20 h, Cl/F 22,39 L/h e Vd/F 110,43 L. No momento do parto foram observadas as razões de concentrações veia umbilical/plasma materno de 0,11 (0,09-0,20) para o LPV e 0,07 (0,05- 0,12) para o RTV (dados apresentados como medianas e percentis 25-75), indicando baixa transferência de ambos os fármacos através da barreira placentária. / Lopinavir (LPV)/ritonavir (RTV) are currently the most commonly used protease inhibitors in pregnant women with HIV. LVP, a substrate of drug efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp), has a very low oral bioavailability due to the extensive metabolism by CYP3A4. However, it is coadministered with ritonavir, a potent inhibitor of CYP3A4 and P-gp. This study investigates the kinetic disposition of LPV and RTV in maternal plasma of pregnant women with HIV as well as the placental transfer of both drugs. We investigated 7 patients in the third trimester of pregnancy treated with 400 mg of LPV and 100 mg of RTV every 12 h. Serial maternal blood samples were collected up to 12 h after administration of LPV/RTV. At delivery were also collected simultaneously maternal and cord blood samples to determine the placental transfer of both drugs. The method of simultaneous analysis of LPV an RTV in plasma was developed and validated using LC-MS/MS. Plasma samples (100 ?L) were spiked with antipyrine as internal standard and submitted to liquid-liquid extraction with tertbutyl methyl ether. The separation of LPV, RTV and internal standard was obtained on C18e reverse phase column with a mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile, water and formic acid (50:50:0.1, v/v/v) at a flow rate of 1.3 mL/min. The method has no matrix effect, it is linear in the range of 6.40 ng/mL to 12.50 ?g/mL for LPV and 3.20 to 12.50 ?g/mL for RTV and shows lower limits of quantitation of 6.40 ng/mL for LPV and 3.20 ng/mL for RTV. The coefficients of variation and relative standard errors obtained in studies of intraassay and interassay precision and accuracy were below 15% for both compounds. Pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using the WinNonlin program. The following pharmacokinetic parameters were obtained for LPV (data expressed as medians) during the third trimester of pregnancy: Cmax 14.63 ?g/mL, tmax 4.0 h, AUC0-12 95.21 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 6.72 h, Cl/F 4.20 L/h and Vd/F 37.91 L. Regarding RTV, the following values were obtained: Cmax 0.64 ?g/mL, tmax 4.0 h, AUC0-12 4.47 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 3.20 h, Cl/F 22.39 L/h and Vd/F 110.43 L. The umbilical vein/maternal plasma ratios were 0.11 (0.09 to 0.20) for LPV and 0.07 (0.05 to 0.12) for RTV (data presented as medians and percentiles 25-75), indicating low placental transfer of both drugs.

A nifedipina é uma dihidropiridina, antagonista de canal de cálcio utilizada no tratamento hipertensão arterial na gravidez. O presente estudo visa avaliar a influência do DM2 na farmacocinética da nifedipina em gestantes hipertensas. Foram avaliadas 12 gestantes hipertensas (grupo controle) e 10 gestantes hipertensas portadoras de DM 2 controlado (grupo DM), em uso de nifedipina retard (20 mg, 12/12 horas). A partir da 34ª semana de gestação foram coletadas amostras seriadas de sangue para a análise farmacocinética nos tempos zero, 10, 20, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 240, 300, 360, 420, 480, 540, 600, 660 e 720 minutos após a administração do medicamento. Na resolução da gravidez coletou-se sangue materno e fetal para determinar a taxa de transferência placentária da nifedipina. Foram coletadas também alíquotas de sangue do espaço interviloso e de líquido amniótico para a determinação da distribuição do fármaco nestes compartimentos. As concentrações de nifedipina em plasma e líquido amniótico foram analisadas por LC-MS/MS. Os parâmetros farmacocinéticos e de transferência placentária da nifedipina, reportados como mediana foram comparados usando o teste Mann-Whitney, com nível de significância fixado em p<0,05. Os parâmentros encontrados para o grupo controle foram Cmax 26,41 ng/mL; tmax 1,79h; AUC0-12 235,99 ng.h/mL; Kel 0,16 h-1; t1/2 4,34 h; Vd/F 560,96 L; ClT/F 84,77 L/h. Para o grupo DM, foram encontrados os seguintes parâmetros Cmax 23,52 ng/mL; tmax 1,48h; AUC0-12 202,23 ng.h/mL; Kel 0,14 h-1; t1/2 5,00 h; Vd/F 609,40 L; ClT/F 98,94 L/h. As razões da concentração plasmática da nifedipina na veia umbilical, artéria umbilical, espaço interviloso e líquido amniótico pela concentração plasmática na veia materna foram para o grupo controle e para o grupo DM 0,53 e 0,44; 0,46 e 0,33; 0,78 e 0,87, respectivamente, e 0,05 para ambos os grupos. A razão da concentração plasmática da artéria umbilical pela veia umbilical foi 0,82 para o grupo controle e 0,88 para o grupo DM. Não houve influência do DM2 na farmacocinética e transferência placentária da nifedipina em gestantes hipertensas portadoras de diabetes controlado. O estudo sugere que o regime de dose da nifedipina não precisa ser modificado. / Nifedipine is a dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker used in the treatment of hypertension in pregnant women. The present study aims to evaluate de effect of T2DM on the pharmacokinetics of nifedipine in hypertensive pregnant women.12 hypertensive pregnant women (control group) and 10 hypertensive pregnant women with controlled T2DM, using nifedipine retard (20 mg, 12/12h) were evaluated. From 34th week of gestation, serial blood samples were collected for pharmacokinetics analysis at times zero, 10, 20, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 240, 300, 360, 420, 480, 540, 600, 660 e 720 minutes after drug administration. At delivery, maternal blood, umbilical vein and umbilical artery were collected to determine the rate of placental transfer of nifedipine. Aliquots from placental intervillous space and amniotic fluid were also collected to determine the drug distribution in these compartments. The concentrations of nifedipine in plasma and amniotic fluid were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Pharmacokinetics and transplacental transfer parameters of nifedipine, reported as median, were compared using Mann-Whitney test, with the level of significance set at p<0.05. The parameters presented for control group were Cmax 26.41 ng/mL; tmax 1.79h; AUC0-12 235.99 ng.h/mL; Kel 0.16 h-1; t1/2 4.34 h; Vd/F 560.96 L; ClT/F 84.77 L/h. For T2DM group the parameters presented were Cmax 23.52 ng/mL; tmax 1.48h; AUC0-12 202.23 ng.h/mL; Kel 0.14 h-1; t1/2 5.00 h; Vd/F 609.40 L; ClT/F 98.94 L/h. The ratios of plasma concentration of nifedipine in umbilical vein, umbilical artery, intervillous space and amniotic fluid for plasma concentration of maternal vein for control group and T2DM group were 0.53 and 0.44; 0.46 and 0.33; 0.78 and 0.87, respectively, and 0.05 for both groups. The ratios of plasma concentration of umbilical artery and umbilical vein were 0.82 for control group and 0.88 for T2DM group. T2DM does not influence the pharmacokinetics of nifedipine in hypertensive pregnant women with controlled diabetes. The study suggests that the nifedipine dose regimen doesnt need to be modified.

Interações medicamentosas envolvendo a glicoproteína-P (P-gp) intestinal e placentária são determinantes na disposição cinética e transferência placentária de medicamentos durante a gestação. A fexofenadina, fármaco anti-histamínico, está disponível na clínica como racemato com indicação de uso durante a gravidez para o tratamento da rinite alérgica sazonal e urticária crônica. Considerando a fexofenadina como um substrato da P-gp e a fluoxetina, fármaco antidepressivo indicado durante a gravidez, um inibidor da P-gp, o presente estudo investiga a influência da fluoxetina na disposição cinética enantiosseletiva da fexofenadina em parturientes e suas relações com a transferência placentária in vivo e ex vivo. No estudo in vivo foram investigadas 16 parturientes, sendo 8 incluídas no grupo Controle e 8 incluídas no grupo Interação. Todas as parturientes investigadas receberam dose única oral de 60mg de fexofenadina racêmica, enquanto as parturientes do grupo Interação receberam também dose única oral de 40mg de fluoxetina racêmica 3 h antes da administração da fexofenadina. As amostras seriadas de sangue e urina foram colhidas até 48 h após a administração da fexofenadina. Na resolução do parto (2-3 h após a administração da fexofenadina) foram coletadas simultaneamente amostras de sangue materno, venoso e arterial do cordão umbilical e do espaço interviloso placentário. No modelo ex vivo, a farmacocinética transplacentária dos enantiômeros da fexofenadina foi avaliada em 4 lóbulos de placenta humana. Os enantiômeros da fexofenadina foram determinados nas amostras de plasma, urina e solução de perfusão placentária por LC-MS/MS acoplado a coluna de fase estacionária quiral Chirobiotic® V. A análise farmacocinética foi realizada empregando o programa WinNonlin e os testes estatísticos foram realizados com o auxílio do programa R. A disposição cinética da fexofenadina é enantiosseletiva no plasma materno com maiores valores de AUC0-? (423,20 vs 267,67 ng×h/mL) e menores valores de volume de distribuição aparente (621,37 vs 889,83 L), clearance total aparente (66,20 vs 105,05 L/h) e clearance renal aparente (5,25 vs 8,78 L/h) para o distômero (R)-(+)-fexofenadina. A transferência placentária da fexofenadina é limitada com razões de concentrações plasmáticas veia umbilical/veia materna de aproximadamente 0,16 para ambos os enantiômeros. As razões enantioméricas R-(+)/S-(-) de aproximadamente 1,7 nos compartimentos materno e fetal sugerem que a P-gp placentária não discrimina entre os enantiômeros da fexofenadina. A administração de dose única oral de 40 mg de fluoxetina racêmica 3 h antes da administração da fexofenadina aumentou os valores de AUC0-? (376,09 vs 267,67 ng×h/mL) e reduziu os valores de clearance total aparente (74,37 vs 105,05 L/h) e clearance renal aparente (3,50 vs 8,78 L/h) somente para o eutômero (S)-(-)-fexofenadina, inferindo inibição enantiosseletiva da P-gp intestinal. A administração de dose única oral de 40 mg de fluoxetina racêmica 3 h antes da administração da fexofenadina [concentrações plasmáticas materna no momento da extração fetal de 11, 9, 7 e 3 ng/mL, respectivamente para os enantiômeros (S)-(+)-fluoxetina, (R)-(-)-fluoxetina, (S)-(+)-norfluoxetina e (R)-(-)-norfluoxetina] não altera as razões de concentrações plasmáticas veia umbilical/veia materna e as razões enantioméricas R-(+)/S-(-) nos compartimentos materno e fetal. No modelo ex vivo, a transferência placentária da fexofenadina é lenta e limitada com razões de concentrações reservatório ii fetal/reservatório materno de aproximadamente 0,18 para ambos os enantiômeros. As razões enantioméricas R-(+)/S-(-) de aproximadamente 1,0 nos compartimentos materno e fetal confirmam que a P-gp placentária não discrimina entre os enantiômeros da fexofenadina. As concentrações clinicamente relevantes de 50 ng de cada enantiômero da fluoxetina/mL não alteram as razões de concentrações reservatório fetal/reservatório materno, a velocidade de transferência placentária e as razões enantioméricas R-(+)/S-(-) nos compartimentos materno e fetal. As razões de concentrações dos enantiômeros da fexofenadina reservatório fetal/reservatório materno obtidas no modelo ex vivo são similares às razões obtidas no estudo clínico de concentrações plasmáticas veia umbilical/veia materna, inferindo a validade do modelo ex vivo de predição da transferência placentária in vivo dos enantiômeros da fexofenadina. Concluindo, os estudos in vivo e ex vivo permitem inferir que a fluoxetina inibe de maneira enantiosseletiva a P-gp intestinal e não inibe a P-gp placentária em concentrações clinicamente relevantes / Drug-drug interaction on the intestinal and placental P-glycoprotein (P-gp) plays an important role in the kinetics disposition and placental transfer of drugs during pregnancy. Fexofenadine is an antihistamine drug for seasonal allergic rhinitis and chronic urticaria treatment during pregnancy and it is available as a racemic mixture. Taken together fexofenadine as a P-gp substrate and fluoxetine, antidepressant drug used in pregnancy, as a P-gp inhibitor, this study asses the effect of fluoxetine on the enantioselective kinetic disposition of fexofenadine in pregnant women at term and their relationships with in vivo and ex vivo transplacental transfer. The in vivo study investigated 16 parturients, 8 included in Control group and 8 included in Interaction group. All of parturients received 60 mg of racemic fexofenadine in a single oral dose, while Interaction group subjects were also given 40 mg of racemic fluoxetine in a single oral dose 3 h before fexofenadine administration. Serial blood and urine samples were collected for 48 h after fexofenadine administration. Maternal blood, venous and arterial umbilical cord blood, as well as placental intervillous space blood samples were simultaneously collected at delivery (2-3 h after fexofenadine administration). The transplacental pharmacokinetics of fexofenadine enantiomers was assayed in 4 placental lobule using ex vivo placental perfusion model. Fexofenadine enantiomers were determined in plasma, urine and placental perfusate samples by LC-MS/MS equipped with the chiral column Chirobiotic® V. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined using WinNonlin and statistical analyses were performed using R statistical software. Fexofenadine kinetics disposition is enantioselective in maternal plasma with higher AUC0-? values (423.20 vs. 267.67 ng×h/mL) and lower apparent volume of distribution values (621.37 vs. 889.83 L), apparent total clearance (66.20 vs. 105.05 L/h) and apparent renal clearance (5.25 vs. 8.78 L/h) for (R)-(+)-fexofenadine distomer. Fexofenadine placental transfer is limited, with umbilical vein/maternal vein plasma concentration ratios of approximately 0.16 for both enantiomers. R-(+)/S-(-) enantiomeric ratios of approximately 1.7 in both maternal and fetal compartments indicate that placental P-gp might not have ability of fexofenadine\'s chiral discrimination. Single oral dose administration of 40 mg of racemic fluoxetine 3 h before fexofenadine administration increased AUC0-? values (376.09 vs. 267.67 ng×h/mL) and lowered both apparent total clearance values (74.37 vs. 105.05 L/h) and apparent renal clearance (3.50 vs. 8.78 L/h) only for (S)-(-)-fexofenadine eutomer, inferring intestinal P-gp enantioselective inhibition. Single oral dose administration of 40 mg of racemic fluoxetine 3 h before fexofenadine administration [maternal plasma concentrations at delivery of 11, 9, 7 and 3 ng/mL for (S)-(+)-fluoxetine, (R)-(-)-fluoxetine, (S)-(+)-norfluoxetine and (R)-(-)-norfluoxetine enantiomers, respectively] does not change either umbilical vein/maternal vein plasma concentration ratios or R-(+)/S-(-) enantiomeric ratios in maternal and fetal compartments. In the ex vivo model, placental transfer of fexofenadine is slow and limited, presenting fetal/maternal reservoirs concentration ratios of approximately 0.18 for both enantiomers. R-(+)/S-(-) enantiomeric ratios of approximately 1.0 on maternal and fetal compartments confirm placental P-gp does not have ability of fexofenadine\'s chiral discrimination. Clinically relevant concentrations of 50 ng of each fluoxetine enantiomer/mL neither alter fetal/maternal reservoirs concentration ratios, placental transfer rate nor R-(+)/S-(-) enantiomeric ratios in maternal and fetal iv compartments. Fetal/maternal reservoirs concentration ratios of fexofenadine enantiomers obtained in the ex vivo model are similar to those obtained in the clinical study of umbilical vein/maternal vein plasma concentrations, implying the validity of ex vivo model to predict placental transfer of fexofenadine enantiomers in vivo. In conclusion, both in vivo and ex vivo studies allow us to infer that fluoxetine enantioselectively inhibits intestinal P-gp and yet does not inhibit placental P-gp at clinically relevant concentrations.

O lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/RTV) são os inibidores de proteases mais utilizados em mulheres grávidas portadoras do vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV). O LPV, um fármaco substrato do transportador de efluxo glicoproteína P (P-gp), apresenta uma baixa e variável biodisponibilidade oral devido ao extenso metabolismo dependente do CYP3A4 hepático e intestinal. No entanto, o LPV é co-administrado com o RTV, um potente inibidor do metabolismo mediado pelo CYP3A4 e um potente inibidor do transportador P-gp. O estudo investiga a disposição cinética do LPV e do RTV no plasma materno de gestantes portadoras do HIV assim como a transferência placentária de ambos os fármacos. Foram investigadas 7 pacientes no terceiro trimestre de gestação em tratamento com 400 mg de LPV e 100 mg de RTV a cada 12 h. As amostras seriadas de sangue materno foram coletadas até 12 h após a administração do LPV/RTV. No momento do parto, também foram coletadas, simultaneamente, amostras de sangue materno e sangue do cordão umbilical para determinar a taxa de transferência placentária do LPV/RTV. O método de análise simultânea do LPV e RTV em plasma foi desenvolvido e validado empregando LC-MS/MS. As amostras de plasma (100 ?L) foram adicionadas de antipirina como padrão interno e submetidas à extração líquido-líquido com éter metil terc-butílico. A separação do LPV, RTV e padrão interno foi obtida na coluna de fase reversa C18e com fase móvel constituída de acetonitrila, água e ácido fórmico (50:50:0,1, v/v/v) na vazão de 1,3 mL/min. O método não apresenta efeito matriz, é linear no intervalo de 6,40 ng/mL-12,50 ?g/mL para o LPV e 3,20 ng/mL- 12,50 ?g/mL para o RTV e os limites inferiores de quantificação são de 6,40 ng/mL para o LPV e 3,20 ng/mL para o RTV. Os coeficientes de variação e os erros padrão relativos obtidos nos estudos de precisão e exatidão intra e intercorridas foram inferiores a 15% para ambos os compostos. A análise farmacocinética foi realizada empregando o programa WinNonlin e os testes estatísticos foram realizados com o auxílio do programa GraphPad Prisma. Os seguintes parâmetros farmacocinéticos foram obtidos para o LPV (dados expressos como medianas) durante o terceiro trimestre da gestação: Cmax 14,63 ?g/mL, tmax 4,0 h, AUC0-12 95,21 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 6,72 h, Cl/F 4,20 L/h e Vd/F 37,91 L. Em relação ao RTV, foram obtidos os seguintes valores: Cmax 0,64 ?g/mL, tmax 4,0 h, AUC0-12 4,47 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 3,20 h, Cl/F 22,39 L/h e Vd/F 110,43 L. No momento do parto foram observadas as razões de concentrações veia umbilical/plasma materno de 0,11 (0,09-0,20) para o LPV e 0,07 (0,05- 0,12) para o RTV (dados apresentados como medianas e percentis 25-75), indicando baixa transferência de ambos os fármacos através da barreira placentária. / Lopinavir (LPV)/ritonavir (RTV) are currently the most commonly used protease inhibitors in pregnant women with HIV. LVP, a substrate of drug efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp), has a very low oral bioavailability due to the extensive metabolism by CYP3A4. However, it is coadministered with ritonavir, a potent inhibitor of CYP3A4 and P-gp. This study investigates the kinetic disposition of LPV and RTV in maternal plasma of pregnant women with HIV as well as the placental transfer of both drugs. We investigated 7 patients in the third trimester of pregnancy treated with 400 mg of LPV and 100 mg of RTV every 12 h. Serial maternal blood samples were collected up to 12 h after administration of LPV/RTV. At delivery were also collected simultaneously maternal and cord blood samples to determine the placental transfer of both drugs. The method of simultaneous analysis of LPV an RTV in plasma was developed and validated using LC-MS/MS. Plasma samples (100 ?L) were spiked with antipyrine as internal standard and submitted to liquid-liquid extraction with tertbutyl methyl ether. The separation of LPV, RTV and internal standard was obtained on C18e reverse phase column with a mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile, water and formic acid (50:50:0.1, v/v/v) at a flow rate of 1.3 mL/min. The method has no matrix effect, it is linear in the range of 6.40 ng/mL to 12.50 ?g/mL for LPV and 3.20 to 12.50 ?g/mL for RTV and shows lower limits of quantitation of 6.40 ng/mL for LPV and 3.20 ng/mL for RTV. The coefficients of variation and relative standard errors obtained in studies of intraassay and interassay precision and accuracy were below 15% for both compounds. Pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using the WinNonlin program. The following pharmacokinetic parameters were obtained for LPV (data expressed as medians) during the third trimester of pregnancy: Cmax 14.63 ?g/mL, tmax 4.0 h, AUC0-12 95.21 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 6.72 h, Cl/F 4.20 L/h and Vd/F 37.91 L. Regarding RTV, the following values were obtained: Cmax 0.64 ?g/mL, tmax 4.0 h, AUC0-12 4.47 ?g.h/mL, t1/2 3.20 h, Cl/F 22.39 L/h and Vd/F 110.43 L. The umbilical vein/maternal plasma ratios were 0.11 (0.09 to 0.20) for LPV and 0.07 (0.05 to 0.12) for RTV (data presented as medians and percentiles 25-75), indicating low placental transfer of both drugs.

A nifedipina é uma dihidropiridina, antagonista de canal de cálcio utilizada no tratamento hipertensão arterial na gravidez. O presente estudo visa avaliar a influência do DM2 na farmacocinética da nifedipina em gestantes hipertensas. Foram avaliadas 12 gestantes hipertensas (grupo controle) e 10 gestantes hipertensas portadoras de DM 2 controlado (grupo DM), em uso de nifedipina retard (20 mg, 12/12 horas). A partir da 34ª semana de gestação foram coletadas amostras seriadas de sangue para a análise farmacocinética nos tempos zero, 10, 20, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 240, 300, 360, 420, 480, 540, 600, 660 e 720 minutos após a administração do medicamento. Na resolução da gravidez coletou-se sangue materno e fetal para determinar a taxa de transferência placentária da nifedipina. Foram coletadas também alíquotas de sangue do espaço interviloso e de líquido amniótico para a determinação da distribuição do fármaco nestes compartimentos. As concentrações de nifedipina em plasma e líquido amniótico foram analisadas por LC-MS/MS. Os parâmetros farmacocinéticos e de transferência placentária da nifedipina, reportados como mediana foram comparados usando o teste Mann-Whitney, com nível de significância fixado em p<0,05. Os parâmentros encontrados para o grupo controle foram Cmax 26,41 ng/mL; tmax 1,79h; AUC0-12 235,99 ng.h/mL; Kel 0,16 h-1; t1/2 4,34 h; Vd/F 560,96 L; ClT/F 84,77 L/h. Para o grupo DM, foram encontrados os seguintes parâmetros Cmax 23,52 ng/mL; tmax 1,48h; AUC0-12 202,23 ng.h/mL; Kel 0,14 h-1; t1/2 5,00 h; Vd/F 609,40 L; ClT/F 98,94 L/h. As razões da concentração plasmática da nifedipina na veia umbilical, artéria umbilical, espaço interviloso e líquido amniótico pela concentração plasmática na veia materna foram para o grupo controle e para o grupo DM 0,53 e 0,44; 0,46 e 0,33; 0,78 e 0,87, respectivamente, e 0,05 para ambos os grupos. A razão da concentração plasmática da artéria umbilical pela veia umbilical foi 0,82 para o grupo controle e 0,88 para o grupo DM. Não houve influência do DM2 na farmacocinética e transferência placentária da nifedipina em gestantes hipertensas portadoras de diabetes controlado. O estudo sugere que o regime de dose da nifedipina não precisa ser modificado. / Nifedipine is a dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker used in the treatment of hypertension in pregnant women. The present study aims to evaluate de effect of T2DM on the pharmacokinetics of nifedipine in hypertensive pregnant women.12 hypertensive pregnant women (control group) and 10 hypertensive pregnant women with controlled T2DM, using nifedipine retard (20 mg, 12/12h) were evaluated. From 34th week of gestation, serial blood samples were collected for pharmacokinetics analysis at times zero, 10, 20, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 240, 300, 360, 420, 480, 540, 600, 660 e 720 minutes after drug administration. At delivery, maternal blood, umbilical vein and umbilical artery were collected to determine the rate of placental transfer of nifedipine. Aliquots from placental intervillous space and amniotic fluid were also collected to determine the drug distribution in these compartments. The concentrations of nifedipine in plasma and amniotic fluid were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Pharmacokinetics and transplacental transfer parameters of nifedipine, reported as median, were compared using Mann-Whitney test, with the level of significance set at p<0.05. The parameters presented for control group were Cmax 26.41 ng/mL; tmax 1.79h; AUC0-12 235.99 ng.h/mL; Kel 0.16 h-1; t1/2 4.34 h; Vd/F 560.96 L; ClT/F 84.77 L/h. For T2DM group the parameters presented were Cmax 23.52 ng/mL; tmax 1.48h; AUC0-12 202.23 ng.h/mL; Kel 0.14 h-1; t1/2 5.00 h; Vd/F 609.40 L; ClT/F 98.94 L/h. The ratios of plasma concentration of nifedipine in umbilical vein, umbilical artery, intervillous space and amniotic fluid for plasma concentration of maternal vein for control group and T2DM group were 0.53 and 0.44; 0.46 and 0.33; 0.78 and 0.87, respectively, and 0.05 for both groups. The ratios of plasma concentration of umbilical artery and umbilical vein were 0.82 for control group and 0.88 for T2DM group. T2DM does not influence the pharmacokinetics of nifedipine in hypertensive pregnant women with controlled diabetes. The study suggests that the nifedipine dose regimen doesnt need to be modified.

La diversité croissante dans l’environnement de composés potentiellement fœtotoxiques est une préoccupation de santé publique. L’objectif de ce travail était de contribuer à l’élaboration de méthodes rapides et efficaces pour en évaluer l’exposition prénatale. La modélisation de la relation quantitative structure à activité (QSAR) est apparue comme une méthode de choix dans l’élaboration d’un modèle prédictif pour le passage placentaire des contaminants. Les ratios fœto-maternels de concentrations sanguines pour 105 contaminants ont été compilés à partir de la littérature, et 214 descripteurs moléculaires ont été générés. Dix modèles prédictifs ont été élaborés à l’aide du logiciel Molecular Operating Environnement (MOE) et des langages de programmation Python et R. Les jeux de données d’entrainement et de test ont été utilisés, respectivement, pour élaborer et valider les modèles. L’outil Applicability Domain v1.0 a été utilisé pour déterminer le domaine d’applicabilité (DA). Les modèles élaborés avec les méthodes de régression des moindres carrés partiels dans MOE et SuperLearner dans R, ont montré les meilleures valeurs de précision et de prédictivité avec des coefficients de détermination internes (R2) de 0,88 et 0,82, des R2 de validation croisée de 0,72 et 0,57, et des R2 externes de 0,73 et 0,74, respectivement. Le recouvrement de toutes les molécules du jeu de test par le domaine d’applicabilité a permis de démontrer la fiabilité et la pertinence des prédictions des modèles. Les résultats obtenus démontrent que les modèles élaborés peuvent aider à quantifier l’exposition fœtale aux composés toxiques de l’environnement à partir des concentrations sanguines de la mère. / The increasing diversity of environmental chemicals in the environment, some of which may be developmental toxicants, is a public health concern. The aim of this work was to contribute to the development of rapid and effective methods to assess prenatal exposure. Quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR) modeling has emerged as a promising method in the development of a predictive model for the placental transfer of contaminants. Fetal to maternal plasma or serum concentration ratios for 105 chemicals were extracted from the literature, and 214 molecular descriptors were generated for each of these chemicals. Ten predictive models were built using Molecular Operating Environment (MOE) software, and the Python and R programming languages. Training and test datasets were used, respectively, to build and validate the models. The Applicability Domain Tool v1.0 was used to determine the applicability domain. The models developed with the partial least squares regression method in MOE and SuperLearner in R, showed the best precision and predictivity, with internal coefficients of determination (R2) of 0.88 and 0.82, cross-validated R2s of 0.72 and 0.57, and external R2s of 0.73 and 0.74, respectively. The inclusion of all test chemicals by the domain of applicability demonstrated the reliability and relevance of the model predictions. The results obtained demonstrate that QSAR modeling can help quantify placental transfer of environmental chemicals.

Le bisphénol S (BPS) est largement utilisé comme substitut du Bisphénol A (BPA) et l’exposition humaine au BPS est désormais ubiquitaire. Or, le BPS, à l’instar du BPA, présente un potentiel perturbateur endocrinien, ce qui soulève la question du risque liée à une exposition fœtale au BPS pour la santé humaine. Dans ce contexte, l’objectif de cette thèse est d’évaluer l’exposition fœtale au BPS et de caractériser des biomarqueurs phénotypiques d’exposition fœtale et/ou d’effet du BPS à partir d’une signature stéroïdomique. Une étude toxicocinétique réalisée sur le modèle du fœtus ovin a montré que le transfert materno-fœtal du BPS est faible. Cependant, le BPS et son principal métabolite, le BPS glucuronide, sont lentement éliminés du compartiment fœtal en raison d’un passage placentaire fœto-maternel du BPS limité et de la faible vitesse de réactivation du BPSG en BPS. Il en résulte une exposition fœtale au BPS similaire à celle au BPA, lors d’exposition maternelle répétée. L’étude du transfert placentaire du BPS et du BPSG sur le modèle de placenta humain perfusé a conforté les résultats observés chez le mouton, avec des faibles transferts materno-fœtal et fœto-maternel du BPS, respectivement 10 et 3 fois inférieurs à ceux du BPA. L’exposition maternelle quotidienne au BPS au cours de la gestation chez la brebis n’a pas eu d’impact sur les voies de biosynthèse des androgènes dans l’unité materno-fœtoplacentaire pour les fœtus mâles. Bien que le potentiel d’exposition fœtale du BPS est similaire à celui du BPA, nous n’avons pas mis en évidence d’effets associés à cette exposition / Bisphenol S (BPS) is widely used as a substitute for Bisphenol A (BPA) and human exposure to BPS is now ubiquitous. However, BPS, like BPA, displays an endocrine disrupting potential, raising the issue of the risk of fetal exposure to BPS for human health. In this context, the objective of this thesis is to evaluate the fetal exposure to BPS and to characterize phenotypic biomarkers of fetal exposure and / or effect of BPS from a steroidal signature. A toxicokinetic study carried out on the model of the ovine fetus has shown that materno-fetal transfer of BPS is weak. However, BPS and its major metabolite, BPS glucuronide, are slowly eliminated from the fetal compartment due to the limited feto-maternal placental transfer of BPS and the low rate of reactivation of BPSG to BPS. This results in fetal exposure to BPS similar to BPA at repeated maternal exposure. The study of placental transfer of BPS and BPSG on the model of human perfused placenta reinforced the results observed in sheep, with low materno-fetal and feto-maternal transfers of BPS, respectively 10 and 3 times lower than those of BPA. Daily maternal exposure to BPS during pregnancy in ewes did not impact the androgen biosynthetic pathways in the materno-fetoplacental unit for male fetuses. Although the potential for fetal exposure of BPS is similar to that of BPA, we have not found any effects associated with this exposure.