Resumo: O cancro cítrico é uma das mais graves doenças da cultura dos citros e seu agente causal (Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri) encontra-se distribuído em dezenas de países localizados na Oceania, Ásia e América. Poucas informações estão disponíveis na literatura científica concernente à caracterização e clonagem de genes de resistência ao cancro cítrico. Sessenta um genótipos, desde altamente suscetíveis até os de plantas não hospedeiras, foram utilizados no presente estudo na tentativa de identificar possíveis R-genes envolvidos na resistência a essa doença. Quatro oligonucleotídeos, desenhados com base em R-genes de Arabdopsis thaliana e Malus floribunda, foram empregados na amplificação de amostras de DNA, clonagem e sequenciamento. Algumas sequências foram amplificadas unicamente em fenótipos altamente resistentes ou de plantas não hospedeiras, ou apresentaram homologia com sequências de genes envolvidas na resistência de plantas a estresses bióticos e abióticos. Algumas sequências traduzidas, encontradas em Citrus mitis, Citrus reticulata e Poncirus trifoliata, apresentaram mesmos aminoácidos presentes em domínios conservados de R-genes do tipo NBS-LRR. / Abstract: Citrus canker is one of the most important citrus diseases worldwide. Its pathogen is the bacterium Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri that is presented in Ocean, Asia and America continents. Almost no information is available in the scientific literature about the genetic resistant against citrus canker. In the present work we developed and used primers in the tentative identification of genes involved in the resistance of citrus and other rutaceous genotypes against this disease. Sixty one genotypes, presenting complete resistant or extremely susceptible phenotypes, were tested with four primers developed based on R-genes from Arabdopsis thaliana and Malus floribunda. Some cloned sequences were identified only in resistant or non-host phenotypes or were similar with translated sequences homologues from genes involved in responses against biotic and abiotic stresses. Other traduced sequences, identified in Citrus mitis, Citrus reticulata and Poncirus trifoliata species, presented some predicted aminoacids from conserved domains of R-genes type NBS-LRR. / Orientadora: Maria Inês Tiraboschi Ferro / Coorientador: José Belasque Junior / Banca: Jackson Antonio Marcondes de Souza / Banca: Henrique Ferreira / Mestre

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:27:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2010-07-07Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:35:21Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 braga_gl_me_jabo.pdf: 800422 bytes, checksum: 8c818bf680f780fe0fe026c87dafb42e (MD5) / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / O cancro cítrico é uma das mais graves doenças da cultura dos citros e seu agente causal (Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri) encontra-se distribuído em dezenas de países localizados na Oceania, Ásia e América. Poucas informações estão disponíveis na literatura científica concernente à caracterização e clonagem de genes de resistência ao cancro cítrico. Sessenta um genótipos, desde altamente suscetíveis até os de plantas não hospedeiras, foram utilizados no presente estudo na tentativa de identificar possíveis R-genes envolvidos na resistência a essa doença. Quatro oligonucleotídeos, desenhados com base em R-genes de Arabdopsis thaliana e Malus floribunda, foram empregados na amplificação de amostras de DNA, clonagem e sequenciamento. Algumas sequências foram amplificadas unicamente em fenótipos altamente resistentes ou de plantas não hospedeiras, ou apresentaram homologia com sequências de genes envolvidas na resistência de plantas a estresses bióticos e abióticos. Algumas sequências traduzidas, encontradas em Citrus mitis, Citrus reticulata e Poncirus trifoliata, apresentaram mesmos aminoácidos presentes em domínios conservados de R-genes do tipo NBS-LRR. / Citrus canker is one of the most important citrus diseases worldwide. Its pathogen is the bacterium Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri that is presented in Ocean, Asia and America continents. Almost no information is available in the scientific literature about the genetic resistant against citrus canker. In the present work we developed and used primers in the tentative identification of genes involved in the resistance of citrus and other rutaceous genotypes against this disease. Sixty one genotypes, presenting complete resistant or extremely susceptible phenotypes, were tested with four primers developed based on R-genes from Arabdopsis thaliana and Malus floribunda. Some cloned sequences were identified only in resistant or non-host phenotypes or were similar with translated sequences homologues from genes involved in responses against biotic and abiotic stresses. Other traduced sequences, identified in Citrus mitis, Citrus reticulata and Poncirus trifoliata species, presented some predicted aminoacids from conserved domains of R-genes type NBS-LRR.

Submitted by ELKIN FERNANDO RODAS MENDOZA null (elferodas@yahoo.es) on 2016-09-24T23:11:18Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese Final.pdf: 4482779 bytes, checksum: 749ee0c558bf2e2ec8bbdc14d079523e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Felipe Augusto Arakaki (arakaki@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2016-09-27T14:22:47Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 mendoza_efr_dr_jabo.pdf: 4482779 bytes, checksum: 749ee0c558bf2e2ec8bbdc14d079523e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-27T14:22:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 mendoza_efr_dr_jabo.pdf: 4482779 bytes, checksum: 749ee0c558bf2e2ec8bbdc14d079523e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-08-25 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xac) é o agente causal do cancro cítrico, uma das principais doenças que acometem a citricultura mundial. Atualmente não há uma maneira eficiente de controle do cancro, e novos métodos devem ser desenvolvidos para o tratamento desta doença. Assim, o estudo dos mecanismos utilizados pela Xac durante o processo infeccioso pode revelar novos alvos para o desenvolvimento de compostos farmacológicos que possam eliminar ou controlar o patógeno. Neste estudo, a técnica de RNA-Seq foi utilizada para a identificação de genes diferencialmente expressos (GDE) na Xac em condições in vivo e in vitro. Para isso, cinco variedades de citros com níveis diferentes de suscetibilidade ao cancro cítrico, e meios de cultura indutores de fatores de virulência foram utilizados. Muitos dos genes que codificam para proteínas relacionadas ao sistema de secreção tipo 3 (T3SS), enzimas extracelulares, resposta ao estresse oxidativo, transportadores de ferro e fósforo foram induzidos pela Xac nas condições in vivo. No entanto, in vitro, os perfis de expressão para estes mesmos genes foram diferentes. Estes dados permitiram compreender melhor o ambiente intracelular do hospedeiro, e como este se relaciona com os mecanismos de ativação dos fatores de virulência e patogenicidade de Xac. Neste sentido, os dados apresentados neste estudo mostraram que o T3SS é o principal fator de virulência expresso por esta bactéria em condições in vivo. Além disso, nossos resultados sugerem também que as baixas concentrações de fósforo inorgânico (Pi) e nitrogênio que a bactéria percebe no apoplasto das plantas, são interpretadas como sinais para a ativação do T3SS. Mutações realizadas em genes relacionados com o transporte de Pi (∆phoR e ∆pstB) em Xac demostraram a perda de virulência por alteração na expressão dos genes do T3SS. Assim, estes dados demostram pela primeira vez em Xac um possível mecanismo de regulação entre o sistema de transporte de Pi e o T3SS. Este estudo revelou diferentes fatores de virulência e patogenicidade utilizados pela Xac para vencer as defesas da planta, o que permitirá levantar hipóteses sobre a identificação de possíveis alvos quimioterapêuticos para o tratamento do cancro. / Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xac) is the causal agent of citrus canker, a major disease affecting citrus worldwide. Currently there is no effective way of cancer control, and new methods must be developed for the treatment of this disease. Thus, the study of the mechanisms used by Xac during the infectious process can reveal new targets for the development of pharmacologic compounds that can eliminate or control the pathogen. In this study, RNA-Seq technique was used to identify Xac differentially expressed genes (DEG) in vivo and in vitro conditions. For this purpose, five citrus varieties with different levels of susceptibility to citrus canker and culture mediums inducing virulence factors were used. Many of the genes encoding proteins of the type 3 protein secretion system (T3SS), extracellular enzymes, oxidative stress response, iron and phosphorus transport were induced in Xac in vivo conditions. However, the expression profiles for these same genes were different than observed in vitro conditions. These data allowed us to better understand the intracellular environment of the host, and how this relates to the activation mechanisms of pathogenicity and virulence factors in Xac. In this context, the data presented in this study show the T3SS as the main virulence factor expressed by the bacteria in vivo conditions. Furthermore, our results also suggest that low concentrations of inorganic phosphorus (Pi) and nitrogen, that bacteria sense in the plant apoplast, are interpreted as signals to activation of the T3SS. In this respect, mutations carried out in genes related to the transport of Pi (ΔphoR and ΔpstB) in Xac demonstrated loss of virulence by altering the expression of T3SS genes. Thus, these data identifies for the first time in Xac a possible regulatory mechanism between Pi transport system and T3SS. This study revealed different virulence and pathogenicity factors used by Xac to overcome the plant defenses. These discoveries allow raise hypotheses about the identification of potential chemotherapeutic targets to canker treatment.

A doença vassoura-de-bruxa do cacaueiro (Theobroma cacao L.), causada pelo basidiomiceto Moniliophthora perniciosa consiste numa importante enfermidade e apenas o uso de variedades resistentes representa uma solução econômica e ambientalmente viável. Os hormônios vegetais são imprescindíveis na rede de sinalização envolvida na resposta contra uma grande variedade de estresses bióticos e abióticos, sendo bem reconhecido o papel crucial do ácido salicílico (AS), etileno (ET) e os jasmonatos (JA) na interação planta-patógeno. O mecanismo de resistência observado em T. cacao contra o fungo hemibiotrófico M. perniciosa parece não envolver resposta de hipersensibilidade mediada pela sinalização por AS, e caracteriza-se pela menor incidência de sintomas e atenuação do crescimento micelial no material resistente. A resposta regulada por JA e/ou ET é determinada pela contenção e redução da colonização de tecidos infectados pelo patógeno, com atenuação dos sintomas manifestados, e está associada com a indução e produção de inibidores de protease, enzimas líticas da parede de fungos e enzimas do metabolismo secundário e cujo os genes demonstraram indução diferencial em amostras inoculadas com M. perniciosa. Recentemente, foi demonstrada a produção de AS pelo fungo M. perniciosa, o que poderia estar associado a um desarranjo hormonal na planta, auxiliando o pátogeno no processo infectivo. A partir destas evidências este trabalho teve como hipótese que JA e/ou ET estaria regulando a interação T. cacao e M. perniciosa. Sabe-se que a transcrição de genes codificantes das enzimas da via de biossíntese de JA é induzida por aplicação exógena de metil-jasmonato (MJ) e por patógenos, assim para verificar a participação de JA na resposta de defesa de cacau, seqüências de genes que codificam para enzimas da via de biossíntese foram identificadas, classificadas e confirmados sua identidade por seqüenciamento. A indução e expressão quantitativa destes, além dos genes Samsi, Accox, Pal, Jaz e Della, foram avaliadas entre o acesso susceptível à M. perniciosa (\'P7\') e o resistente (\'CAB 214\') de T. cacao, em experimentos de aplicação de indutores (AS, ET e MJ) e inoculação com M. perniciosa. As análises de expressão gênica relativa por RT-qPCR foram conduzidas e a resposta dos genes de biossíntese de JA, quando tratado com MJ no \'P7\' pareceu ser mais intensa e mais específica, enquanto que o acesso \'CAB 214\' apresentou resposta com menor intensidade, porém com resposta mais precoce, demonstrando que o mecanismo de regulação positiva pela aplicação exógena de MJ também ocorre em T. cacao. Em relação à inoculação, os resultados de expressão gênica sugerem uma diferença na resposta transcricional dos genes analisados sob inoculação de M. perniciosa entre o \'P7\' e o \'CAB 214\' onde os transcritos de Aos, Kat, Samsi e Jaz apresentaram elevação significativa somente no \'CAB 214\' em comparação ao \'P7\'. Em acessos resistentes, como \'CAB 214\', o efeito de AS produzido pelo fungo poderia não estar surtindo efeitos antagônicos, como indicado pelo aumento transcricional de Aos, gene codificador da principal enzima envolvida na biossíntese de JA, e embora os demais genes da via estejam sendo reprimidos, muito possivelmente a sinalização da resposta de defesa do acesso resistente \'CAB 214\' seja desencadeada por JA, devido ao papel central de AOS na sua biossíntese, e de maneira sinérgica ET estaria participando do mecanismo de resposta, indicado pela alta indução de Samsi no acesso resistente / Witches broom disease of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.), caused by the basidiomycete Moniliophthora perniciosa is an important disease and the use of resistant varieties is the only economic and environmental long-term solution. Plant hormones are essential in the signaling network involved in the response against a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. It is well recognized the crucial role of salicylic acid (SA), ethylene (ET) and jasmonate (JA) in plant-pathogen interactions. The mechanism of resistance observed in Theobroma cacao against M. perniciosa does not appear to involve hypersensitivity response mediated by AS signaling, and it is characterized by lower incidence of symptoms and reduction of mycelial growth in resistant material. The response regulated by JA and/or ET is determined by the growth inhibition and a reduction of the colonization of infected tissues by the pathogen, together with an attenuation of symptoms. It is also associated with an induction and production of the protease inhibitors, lytic enzymes and enzymes of secondary metabolism and the genes enconding these enzymes have shown differential expression patterns in samples inoculated with M. perniciosa. It has been recently demonstrated that the production of AS by the fungus M. perniciosa could be associated with a hormonal disorder in the plant, which could therefore help the pathogen in the infective process. Considering this, the hypothesis that JA and/or ET would regulate the interaction of T. cacao with M. perniciosa was formulated in order to be tested by this research work. It is known that the transcription of genes encoding the enzymes of the JA biosynthesis pathway is induced by exogenous application of methyl jasmonate (MJ) and by pathogen, thus, in order to verify the involvement of JA in defense response of cocoa, sequences of genes that encode the enzymes of the JA biosynthesis pathway were isolated, identified, classified and had their identity confirmed by sequencing, and relative quantitative gene expression were evaluated in susceptible \'P7\' and resistant \'CAB 214\' plants of T. cacao. In addition genes Sams, Accox, Pal , Jaz and Della, were evaluated in experiments with application of inducers (AS, ET and MJ) and inoculation with M. perniciosa. Analysis of relative gene expression by RT-qPCR were conducted and \'P7\' seems to have the expression of jasmonate biosynthesis genes in a more intense and more specific manner when treated with MJ, while \'CAB 214\' shows an earlier yet lower response suggesting that the mechanism of positive regulation by the exogenous application of MJ also occurs in T. cacao. For the inoculation, the gene expression results suggest a difference in the transcriptional response from inoculation with M. perniciosa between \'P7\' and \'CAB 214\' in T. cacao. The effect of AS produced by the fungus may not have antagonistic effects in resistant materials such as \'CAB 214\', as indicated by the increase of the transcription of Aos gene that encodes the main enzyme involved in JA biosynthesis, so the defense responses of \'CAB 214\' is possibly triggered by JA signaling, because the central role of AOS in its biosynthesis, and may be part of synergistic ET signaling, indicated by high Samsi expression in resistance material

Pflanzen erkennen potentielle Pathogene anhand von konservierten Mikroben-assoziierten molekularen Mustern (MAMPs) welche sie über membranlokalisierte Rezeptoren wahrnehmen. Der durch diese Rezeptoren aktivierte Signalweg spielt eine wesentliche Rolle in der pflanzlichen angeborenen Immunität. Das Binden eines MAMPs an die oberflächenexponierten Ektodomänen der Rezeptoren führt typischerweise dazu, dass diese homo- oder heteromere Komplexe bilden. Diese Komplexe können aus rezeptorartigen Kinasen (RLKs), rezeptorartigen Proteinen (RLPs) sowie aus rezeptorartigen zytoplasmatischen Kinasen (RLCKs), welche keine extrazelluläre Domäne zur Ligandenbindung besitzen, bestehen. Der Fokus dieser Arbeit liegt auf einem möglichen heteromeren Signalkomplex der unteranderem aus der lysinhaltigen-Motiv (LysM) RLK CERK1 besteht. CERK1 spielt eine Rolle in der durch Chitin induzierten Signaltransduktion und Abwehrantwort in Arabidopsis. In einer vorangegangenen Hefe-Zwei-Hybrid-Analyse wurde die RLCK CLR1 als möglicher Interaktor der CERK1 Kinasedomäne identifiziert. Vergleichende Sequenzanalysen zeigen, dass die Aminosäuresequenz von CLR1 eine hohe Homologie zu den Sequenzen der Kinasedomänen anderer Arabidopsis LysM-RLKs aufweist. Dies könnte möglicherweise für die Funktion des Proteins eine Rolle spielen. Die auf TAIR10 annotierte CLR1 Sequenz scheint falsch annotiert worden zu sein, da das eigentliche Protein laut Analysen in dieser Arbeit wahrscheinlich erst 23 Aminosäuren Richtung C-Terminus beginnt, wodurch dann ein mögliches N-Myristoylierungsmotiv exponiert wird. In vitro wird CLR1 direkt von der CERK1 Kinasedomäne phosphoryliert. CLR1 Fusionsproteine wurden in stabil transgenen Arabidopsis-Pflanzen CERK1-abhängig durch Chitin phosphoryliert. Unabhängig von der möglichen N-terminalen Myristoylierung scheint CLR1 sowohl in vitro also auch in vivo ein Phosphorylierungssubstrat von CERK1 darzustellen. Mikrosomale Fraktionierungen und Analysen zur subzellulären Lokalisation in transgenen Pflanzen zeigten dass die Mehrheit der CLR1 Proteine löslich ist, wobei auch eine kleine Subpopulation von CLR1 membrangebunden in Pflanzenzellen vorliegt. Drei unabhängige T DNA Insertionslinien wurden isoliert und im Hinblick auf die Weiterleitung Chitin-induzierter Signale und Immunität gegen pilzliche und bakterielle Schädlinge getestet. Die clr1 T-DNA Linien wiesen eine verringerte ROS Produktion, MAPK Aktivierung und Expression von Abwehrgenen auf, was eine Rolle für CLR1 im Chitin-induzierten Signalweg bestätigt. Dabei hing die Ausprägung des Phänotyps von der Position der T-DNA ab. clr1 Pflanzen waren nicht in der Resistenz gegen pilzliche Schädlinge beeinträchtigt, wohingegen sie eine leicht erhöhte Anfälligkeit gegenüber bakterieller Infektionen zeigten. Da der CLR1 Promotor erhöhte Aktivität in Hydathoden zeigt, könnte CLR1 darin involviert sein selektiv das Eintreten von Pathogenen über diese konstitutiv geöffneten Öffnungen einzugrenzen.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(農学) / 甲第22128号 / 農博第2374号 / 新制||農||1073(附属図書館) / 学位論文||R1||N5236(農学部図書室) / 京都大学大学院農学研究科応用生物科学専攻 / (主査)教授 髙野 義孝, 教授 田中 千尋, 教授 寺内 良平 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis (Hpa) is a naturally occurring oomycete pathogen on Arabidopsis thaliana. It is related to downy mildews of economically important crops such as cabbage, kale and broccoli, belonging to the Brassicaceae family. Downy mildew pathogens are obligate biotrophs that extract nutrients exclusively from living plant cells. As a part of its obligate biotrophy lifestyle, Hpa has lost the ability to assimilate inorganic nitrogen and sulfur. It thus has to acquire these nutrients from the host in an organic form; possibly amino acids. Using a reverse genetic approach, I was able to identify two host amino acid transporters that are up-regulated during Hpa infection: AAP3 and AAP6. Both of these transporters are localized in the vasculature of the plant, AAP3 mostly in the root, and AAP6 in the roots and shoots. Using transgenic lines of Arabidopsis containing transcriptional and translational reporter fusion constructs for these genes, I found that AAP3 displays increased mRNA accumulation which is attributable to an increased promoter activity in regions of shoot tissue colonized by Hpa. On the other hand, AAP6 displays a mild increase in mRNA accumulation under Hpa infection, but the induction becomes more prominent at the protein level as seen by fluorescence from GFP fused to AAP6. Surprisingly, null mutants of AAP3 did not impact Hpa growth whereas null mutants of AAP6 made the plant more susceptible to Hpa. Furthermore, aap6 mutants accumulate fewer free amino acids in the phloem compared to wild-type plants when infected with Hpa. Together, these results suggest that AAP6 acts a nutritional starvation gene for the pathogen and hence aids the plant during infection. While we now know more about AAP3's regulation during infection, its function remains to be elucidated. To successfully colonize a plant, a pathogen must be able to achieve both suppression of plant immunity and acquisition of nutrients from the plant host. While the former has been well studied, research on the latter is sparse. This work was a step in the direction to increase our understanding of potential players in nutrient acquisition by pathogens. / Doctor of Philosophy / A key aspect of achieving and maintaining food security is sustainable agricultural production. This is endangered by plant diseases that lead to large losses in crop production. All plant pathogens have to acquire food and nutrients from the plants they infect. Understanding how they acquire nutrients from the plant at a molecular level can give us insight into potential methods to prevent this and hence reduce the impact of plant diseases. One such nutrient is nitrogen. Nitrogen is essential to all of an organism’s cellular and metabolic processes. Organisms utilize nitrogen by converting it from inorganic forms such as nitrates to organic forms such as amino acids. Some plant pathogens, such as Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis (Hpa), which causes downy mildew disease on the model plant Arabidopsis, complete their entire life cycle on a living plant. They are also unable to convert the inorganic nitrogen to organic forms and hence depend on acquiring organic forms of nitrogen from the plant. Thus, it is important to understand how they acquire amino acids from the plant. Plants use amino acid transporters that serve as a siphon or a pump in moving amino acids from one region of the plant to another. It is possible that pathogens manipulate plant’s amino acid transporters to move amino acids towards the infection site while, at the same time, plants might use another set of transporters to move amino acids away from the pathogen. This work was an attempt at understanding this potential role of plant amino acid transporters in plant-pathogen interactions using the model system of Hpa and Arabidopsis.

Understanding the complex metabolic networks present in organisms, through the use of high throughput liquid chromatography coupled mass spectrometry, will give insight into the physiological changes responding to stress. However the lack of a proper work flow and robust methodology hinders verifiable biological interpretation of mass profiling data. In this study a novel workflow has been developed. A novel Kernel based feature alignment algorithm, which outperformed Agilent’s Mass profiler and showed roughly a 20% increase in alignment accuracy, is presented for the alignment of mass profiling data. Prior to statistical analysis post processing of data is carried out in two stages, noise filtering is applied to consensus features which were aligned at a 50% or higher rate. Followed by missing value imputation a method was developed that outperforms both at model recovery and false positive detection. The use of parametric methods for statistical analysis is inefficient and produces a large number of false positives. In order to tackle this three non-parametric methods were considered. The histogram method for statistical analysis was found to yield the lowest false positive rate. Data is presented which was analysed using these methods to reveal metabolomic changes during plant pathogenesis. A high resolution time series dataset was produced to explore the infection of Arabidopsis thaliana by the (hemi) biotroph Pseudomonas syringe pv tomato DC3000 and its disarmed mutant DC3000hrpA, which is incapable of causing infection. Approximately 2000 features were found to be significant through the time series. It was also found that by 4h the plants basal defence mechanism caused the significant ‘up-regulation’ of roughly 400 features, of which 240 were found to be at a 4-fold change. The identification of these features role in pathogenesis is supported by the fact that of those features found to discriminate between treatments a number of pathways were identified which have previously been documented to be active due to pathogenesis

As plantas se defendem do ataque de patógenos através de um sistema imune composto por duas fases. A primeira delas é mediada por receptores localizados na membrana celular ou intracelularmente, os quais são conhecidos como receptores de reconhecimento padrão (do inglês, pattern recognition receptors - PRR). Esses receptores reconhecem moléculas derivadas de microrganismos, as quais são conservadas evolutivamente e são chamadas de padrões moleculares associados a patógenos (do inglês, pathogen-associated molecular patterns - PAMPs). Esse reconhecimento dispara uma resposta de defesa conhecida como PTI (do inglês, PAMP-triggerd immunity - PTI). Alguns patógenos foram aptos a sintetizar moléculas capazes de suprimir a PTI e essas moléculas são denominadas de efetores. A resposta que ocorre devido à ação dos efetores é chamada de susceptibilidade disparada por efetores (do inglês, effector-triggered susceptibility - ETS). Entretanto, plantas resistentes podem reconhecer os efetores através de proteínas de resistência localizadas intracelularmente, ativando a imunidade disparada por efetores (do inglês, effector-triggeredimmunity - ETI). De modo geral, as respostas advindas da PTI e da ETI são similares, mas a segunda é ativada mais rapidamente e é mediada por um único gene de resistência R. Por essa razão, a ETI é conhecida como uma resposta à doença qualitativa e as plantas não desenvolvem sintomas, caracterizando a interação incompatível. Por outro lado, a PTI é mediada por diversos genes e as respostas de defesa são tardias, possibilitando a disseminação do patógeno pelas células da planta e a ocorrência da doença, o que caracteriza a interação compatível. Nas respostas de defesa, moléculas como o óxido nítrico, as poliaminas e o ácido salicílico participam do processo de sinalização. O sistema antioxidante da planta é ativado de modo a mitigar os efeitos das espécies reativas de oxigênio e o metabolismo da planta é alterado. Dessa maneira, o estudo das respostas de defesa contra patógenos, pode ser uma ferramenta útil para estabelecer controles efetivos para as doenças de plantas / Plants defend themselves from pathogen attack through an active immunity system composed by two phases. The first is mediated by cell surface and intracellular pattern recognition receptors (PRR), which recognizes conserved molecules derived from microbes known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). This recognition triggers a defense response called PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI). Throughout evolution, pathogens were able to synthesize molecules capable of suppressing PTI. These molecules are named effectors and they are responsible for effector-triggered susceptibility (ETS). However, resistant plants can recognize effectors by intracellular resistance (R) proteins, initiating effector-triggered immunity (ETI). In general, responses derived from PTI and ETI are the same, but the latter is activated faster and is mediated by a single R gene. For this reason, ETI-response is also known as qualitative disease response (QDR) and plants do not develop disease symptoms, characterizing the incompatible interaction. On the other hand, PTI is mediated by several genes and the defense response is delayed, enabling the pathogen to spread out and to cause disease. This interaction is known as compatible. In defense responses, molecules like nitric oxide, polyamines and salicylic acid can participate in signaling process. The antioxidant system can be activated to quench the ROS effects and the plant metabolism is altered. In this sense, studying defense responses against pathogens can help to develop tools to establish effective control methods for plant disease

The dynamics of a plant-pathogen interaction vary both within and among species. Both spatial structuring and specific genetic and life-history characteristics will affect the interaction and the outcome of a potential co-evolution between the two organisms. In this thesis I have studied the interaction between the wild perennial herb Silene dioica and its automictic, obligate anther smut Microbotryum violaceum MvSd. From the plant perspective, I have examined different aspects of biochemical resistance in S. dioica to M. violaceum MvSd. From the pathogen perspective, I have focused on the breeding system of M. violaceum MvSd and its connection to fitness and distribution of genetic diversity. I have used varying methods; glasshouse trails involving inoculation of plants with the pathogen, classical Mendelian analysis involving controlled crosses between plants, microscopic studies of spores and molecular DNA-analysis. With the results I demonstrate that resistance to M. violaceum MvSd in S. dioica can be specific to the attacking pathogen strain and also spatially highly diverse both within and among populations within a metapopulation. Together, these factors are likely to delay the establishment of the disease within host populations and reduce the spread and amount of disease, once it has been established. The results also suggest that the specific resistance expressed against two different M. violaceum MvSd strains were determined by separate gene systems and that, in both cases, the resistance was simply inherited. This implies a potential for relatively rapid response to M. violaceum-induced selection in S. dioica populations variable for resistance. My results also show that automixis clearly is the predominating breeding system of M. violaceum MvSd, similarly to what earlier has been shown for M. violaceum MvSl. Furthermore, I found lower levels of neutral genetic diversity in M. violaceum MvSd in the northern parts of Sweden, compared to what has been found in populations in more southern Europe. This result is consistent with predictions that populations in the outer regions of a species distribution have lower levels of genetic variation. Moreover, populations were highly differentiated in northern Sweden, which could have been generated by high selfing rates, genetic drift and high population turnover rates, all factors that coincide with life-history and ecology of M. violaceum MvSd. However, despite the general low variability in neutral genetic markers, I did find variation in fitness related traits, both within and among populations, as well as differences in infection ability between strains, suggesting there is a potential for co-evolution between S. dioica and M. violaceum MvSd in the area. To summarize, this thesis reflect a plant-pathogen system that is highly influenced by constant colonisation-extinction dynamics, which is likely to have influenced both the genetics of resistance in the plant and the breeding system of the pathogen and thus also the interaction between the two organisms.