Le paludisme est une infection parasitaire de répartition mondiale notamment en zones intertropicales où l’infection par Plasmodium falciparum est responsable de centaines de milliers de morts par an principalement chez les enfants de moins de cinq ans. Le paludisme constitue également un problème en France par l’importation de cas de paludisme chez le voyageur de retour de zone d’endémie. L’infection à Plasmodium falciparum dans cette population, considérée comme à risque de développer les formes graves de la maladie, peut se présenter sous différentes formes cliniques plus ou moins associées au risque de mortalité. Même si certains facteurs de risque de gravité tels que l’âge et l’immunité ont été identifiés, cette interaction complexe hôte-parasite n’a été largement étudiée que chez l’enfant en zone d’endémie et peu de données sont disponibles pour le paludisme d’importation. L’objectif de ces travaux de thèse repose sur l’analyse des facteurs d’hôte et des facteurs parasitaires intervenant dans le paludisme d’importation. A travers le réseau de surveillance du centre national de référence du paludisme en France métropolitaine, l’ensemble des données démographiques, épidémiologiques, cliniques et biologiques des cas de paludisme d’importation, notifiés entre 2011 et 2015, ont été collectées ainsi que les échantillons ayant servis au diagnostic. Après expertise diagnostique, le plasma obtenu après centrifugation a été utilisé pour les dosages des antipaludéens, pour la quantification d’HRP2 ainsi que pour la sérologie anti-palustre. L’ARN extrait par le TRIZOL® à partir du culot globulaire a été utilisé pour l’étude de l’expression des gènes var et des domaines cassettes par qRT-PCR. Le culot de globules rouges parasités a été mis en culture pour la maturation des formes parasitaires en vue de l’étude du phénotype de cytoadhérence sur les récepteurs solubles CD36, ICAM-1, EPCR et du phénomène de rosetting . L’ensemble de ces études a été réalisé sur une population de patients dans le cadre du paludisme d’importation groupée en migrants de première génération, migrants de deuxième génération et voyageurs/expatriés et dont la présentation clinique du paludisme d’importation a été classée en paludisme « très grave », paludisme « grave » et paludisme « simple ». L’ensemble des données épidémiologiques, cliniques et biologiques recueillies au cours de l’étude a permis d’identifier l’âge élevé, l’origine ethnique, la profondeur de la thrombopénie et l’absence d’antécédents de paludisme comme des facteurs de risque associés à la survenue d’un accès palustre « très grave », entité clinique caractérisée pour une biomasse parasitaire séquestrée élevée. L’effet de la pré-exposition au parasite, reflété par le statut sérologique des patients, semble être à l’origine de la présentation clinique de la maladie en limitant notamment la biomasse parasitaire séquestrée au cours de l’accès palustre. L’étude de l’expression des gènes var et des domaines cassettes réalisée dans cette population, en fonction de la présentation clinique, de l’origine ethnique et du statut sérologique des patients, a révélé une surexpression du groupe de gènes var A et B et des motifs protéiques composant les domaines cassettes DC4, DC8 et DC13 dans le paludisme « grave » et « très grave » d’importation au sein de cette population hétérogène de patients. L’étude du phénotype de cytoadhérence et du rosetting, réalisée dans un autre groupe de patients rencontré dans le cadre du paludisme d’importation, a identifié le rosetting comme le phénotype d’adhérence à l’origine de l’accès palustre « très grave ». Le profil d’expression des gènes var et domaines cassettes correspondants à cette population a confirmé les observations antérieures et corrèle le phénotype de rosetting à l’expression des motifs protéiques DBLß3 et DBLa2 de DC4 et DC8 (...) / Malaria is a worldwide parasitic infection especially in tropical area where Plasmodium falciparum infection is responsible for hundreds of thousands annually mainly among children under five years old. Malaria is also a problem in France by the importation of malaria cases in travelers coming from endemic area. The Plasmodium falciparum infection in this population, considered at risk of developping severe malaria, can present different clinical forms more or less associated with mortality.While some risk factors for severity like age and immunity have been identified, this complex host-parasite interactions have been widely studied in children in endemic areas and few data are available for imported malaria. The aim of the thesis work is based on analysis of host factors and parasite factors in imported malaria.Through the monitoring network of the French National reference center of malaria, all the demographic, epidemiological, clinical and laboratory of imported malaria cases, notified between 2011 and 2015, were collected and also samples of the parasitological diagnosis. After diagnostic expertise, the plasma obtained after centrifugation was used for determinations of antimalarial drugs, for quantification of plasmatic HRP2 and for serological tests. RNA extracted by the Trizol® from red cells pellets was used to study the expression of var genes and domain cassettes by qRT-PCR. The pellet of parasitized red blood cells were cultured for maturation of parasitic forms for the study of phenotype cytoadherence on soluble receptor CD36, ICAM-1 and EPCR and for the study of the rosetting phenomenon. All of these studies was conducted in an imported malaria context,in a population of patients composed by first-generation migrants, second-generation migrants and travelers / expatriates and whose clinical presentation of imported malaria was classified into very severe (VSM), mild severe (MSM) and uncomplicated malaria (UM).All the epidemiological, clinical and biological data collected during the study identified the high age, ethnicity, depth of thrombocytopenia and no history of malaria as factors risk associated with the occurrence of very severe malaria, clinical entity characterized by high sequestered parasite biomass. The effect of pre-exposure to the parasite, reflected by the serological status of patients, seems to be the cause of the clinical presentation of the disease in particular by limiting parasite biomass sequestered during malaria. The study of the expression of var genes and domain cassettes performed in this population, according to clinical presentation, ethnicity and the serological status of patients, revealed an overexpression of the group of var genes A and B and protein patterns of the domain cassette DC4, DC8 and DC13 in mild severe and very severe malaria within this heterogeneous patient population. The study of cytoadherence phenotype and rosetting, made in another group of patients in imported malaria context, identified the rosetting as adhesion phenotype causing very severe malaria. The expression profile of var genes and domain cassettes corresponding to this population confirmed earlier observations and correlates rosetting phenotype to the expression of DBLß3 and DBLa2 of DC4 and DC8 (...)

Le développement d'un vaccin anti-paludique est limité par notre connaissance incomplète des effecteurs agissant contre P.falciparum. Nous avons mis en évidence que les cellules T Vγ9Vδ2 sont activées par la forme intra-érythrocytaire (schizonte) et par les phosphoantigènes de P.falciparum, et peuvent inhiber la croissance du parasite in vitro par un mécanisme dépendant de la granulysine ciblant la forme invasive du parasite (mérozoïte). Ces résultats suggérent que les lymphocytes T Vγ9Vδ2 jouent un rôle dans le contrôle précoce de la charge parasitaire. Cependant, le mécanisme médiant l’interaction entre les schizontes, les mérozoïtes les cellules T Vγ9Vδ2 et reste élusif. L'objectif de cette thèse est d’étudier les interactions entre les stades sanguins de P. falciparum et les cellules T Vγ9Vδ2, afin de mieux comprendre leurs activités anti-parasitaires, dans le but à long terme d’une utilisation clinique. Dans ce travail, nous étudions l'importance du contact direct avec les parasites dans l’activation et les activités anti-parasitaires des cellules T Vγ9Vδ2, par des approches de microscopie confocale et de cytométrie en flux. Nous suggérons que les cellules T Vγ9Vδ2 forment peu ou pas de contacts avec les mérozoïtes, et très peu de contacts avec le schizonte. De plus, nous montrons que, contrairement à une lignée cellulaire tumorale cible (Daudi), le contact avec les schizontes n'affecte pas l'activation des cellules T Vγ9Vδ2, suggérant que les phosphoantigenes du parasite sont libérés dans le milieu. Nous démontrons que les phosphoantigènes produits par la voie DOXP sont probablement libérés par un processus actif, dépendant des new permeation pathways (NPP). Ensembles, ces résultats suggèrent que l'activation et l'activité antiparasitaire des cellules T Vγ9Vδ2 n’est pas dépendante du contact, mais est médié par des facteurs solubles. / The limited knowledge of immune effector against Plasmodium falciparum precludes the development of a malaria efficient vaccine. We have recently evidenced that Vγ9Vδ2 T cells act as a new immune effector early in malaria infection. These cells are activated by the mature intraerythrocytic form (schizont) and by parasite-derived antigens (phosphoantigens). After activation, they inhibit in vitro parasite growth by targeting the extraerythrocytic invasive form (merozoite), by a granulysin-dependent mechanism. However, the mechanism by which Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are activated by schizonts and target merozoites remains elusive. The aim of this PhD project is to describe the interactions between P.falciparum blood stages and γδ T cells, in order to better understand their anti-parasitic activities and in the long term goal to manipulate these cells to prevent malaria. In the work, we investigate the importance of cell to parasite contact in Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation and anti-parasitic activity by time-lapse and fixed confocal imaging, and cytometry. We suggest that Vγ9Vδ2 T cells form little or no contacts with merozoites, and very few contacts with the mature intraerythrocytic (schizont) form of the parasite. Moreover, we show that cytotoxic activities are elicited by schizonts, but that contrary to a known tumor cell line (Daudi cells), contact has no effect on the level of activation, suggesting that parasite-derived phosphoantigens are secreted in the microenvironment. We pursue the characterization of the parasite-derived phosphoantigens and demonstrate that they are produced by the DOXP pathway. Lastly, we show that phosphoantigens are most likely released by an active process, dependent on the new permeation pathways. Altogether, these results shed light on an unconventional mode of activation by P.falciparum blood stages and antiparasitic activity of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, which is not contact-dependent, but rather is mediated by soluble factors.

Os diversos aspectos da cadeia de transmissão da malária autóctone são importantes para o estabelecimento de estratégias de intervenção. Entre abril de 2001 e março de 2004, 65 pacientes e 1.777 habitantes foram avaliados em nove municípios da região montanhosa do Espírito Santo. Foram realizados: gota espessa, esfregaço fino, PCR Multiplex, reação de imunofluorescência indireta (IFI) para detecção de anticorpos contra antígenos de estágios eritrocitários de Plasmodium e ELISA para detecção de anticorpos contra peptídeos sintetizados a partir da porção repetitiva da proteína circunsporozoíta (CSP) das variantes de P. vivax e do P. malariae. Foram capturados anofelíneos no peridomicílio, com pesquisa, por PCR Multiplex, de DNA de Plasmodium. O mesmo foi pesquisado também em alguns símios locais. Os pacientes tinham 35,11 + 16 anos, em média. A maioria era do gênero masculino (51 ou 78,5%), 42 (64,6%) residiam em área rural, 23 (35,4%) eram agricultores e oito (12,3%) estudantes. Não houve viagens relevantes. Sessenta e dois (95,4%) nunca haviam tido malária. Vinte e quatro (36,9%) declararam ter entrado na mata. Predominaram a febre, a cefaléia e os calafrios. A febre era episódica em 63 (96,9%), a cada 48 horas em 48 (73,8%) e a cada 24 horas em 15 pacientes (23,1%). O baço foi impalpável em 26 (42,6%). Foi evidenciado o P. vivax em 47 de 48 pacientes e o P. malariae naquele restante, por características morfológicas e pela PCR Multiplex. Esta foi positiva para P. vivax em 45 dos 48, para P. malariae em um e negativa em dois. A IFI foi positiva, para P. malariae, em seis de sete testados, para IgM, e em todos os sete para IgG. Para o P. vivax, entre 50, 47 (94%) foram positivos para IgM e 48 (96%) para IgG. Entre 50 pacientes, pelo ELISA, 25 (50%) tinham anticorpos contra variantes do P. vivax ou contra o P. malariae. As freqüências individuais foram: 22 (44%) para a VK 210, 11 (22%) para a VK 247, 10 (20%) para o P. vivax-like e 10 (20%) para o P. malariae. Entre 253 amostras dos habitantes testadas na IFI para o P. malariae, o resultado foi positivo em 15,8% (40/253) para IgM e em 44,6% (113/253) para IgG. Para o P. vivax , em 1.701, foram 6,2% (105/1701) para IgM e 37,7% (641/1.701) para IgG. Foram detectados anticorpos contra a CSP em 615 de 1.702 amostras (36,1%). Foram 433 (25,4%) para a VK210, 258 (15,1%) para P. malariae, 108 (6,3%) para a VK 247 e 182 (10,7%) para P. vivax -like. A PCR Multiplex, em 1.527 amostras, detectou P. vivax em 23, P. malariae em 15, P. falciparum em nove e P. falciparum e P. malariae em um. Entre 785 espécimes de anofelíneos, com 10 espécies, foi encontrado DNA de P. vivax em um conjunto de exemplares de A. evansae. O P. malariae/brasilianum foi identificado pela PCR Multiplex em dois de cinco símios da região, em um também pelo esfregaço fino. Existem dois possíveis cenários para a transmissão. No primeiro, ela seria inter-humana, com vetores Nyssorhynchus secundários. Em um segundo, viria do reservatório símio, por indivíduos adentrando o ambiente florestal. / The several aspects of the transmission cycle of the indigenous malaria are important to base on the intervention strategies. From April 2001 to March 2004, 65 patients and 1,777 inhabitants were evaluated in nine Municipalities of the highlands of Espírito Santo State. Laboratory methods included: thick and thin smears, Multiplex PCR, imunnofluorescent assay to detect antibodies against crude blood-stages antigens of the Plasmodium genus (IFA) and ELISA to detect antibodies against synthetic peptides corresponding to the repetitive region of the Circumsporozoite protein of P. vivax variants and P. malariae. Anopheline mosquitoes were captured nearby the houses, being screened by Multiplex PCR in the search for Plasmodium DNA. The same test was also applied to some local wild monkeys. Patients had 35.11 + 16 years old in average. Most of them were males (51 or 78.5%), 42 (64,6%) lived in the rural environment, 23 (35.4%) were farmers and eight (12.3%) were students. There was no relevant history of travel. Sixty-two (95.4%) of them had never experienced malaria before. Twenty- four (36.9%) of them informed excursions inside the forest. The predominant symptoms were fever, headache and chills. Fever was periodic in 63 patients (96.9%), recurring each 48 hours in 48 of them (73.8%) and each 24 hours in 15 (23.1%). Spleen was not palpable in 26 patients (42.6%). Morphologic aspects and PCR results disclosed P. vivax as the agent involved in 47 of the 48 cases so screened. Multiplex PCR was positive for P. vivax in 45 of 48 tested, for P. malariae in another one and negative for the two remaining. IFA tested positive for IgM against P. malariae in six of seven evaluated samples, and for IgG against the same parasite in all of the seven. For P. vivax , the figures were 47 of 50 (94%) for IgM antibodies and 48 of 50 (96%) for IgG antibodies. From fifty patients whose samples were screened by ELISA, 25 (50%) were positive for P. vivax variants or P. malariae. The results considering each one of the tested peptides were: 22 (44%) for VK 210, 11 (22%) for VK 247, 10 (20%) for P. vivax -like e 10 (20%) for P. malariae. Among 253 population samples screened in search for P. malariae antibodies at IFA, 40 (15.8%) were positive for IgM antibodies and 113 (44,6%) for IgG antibodies. The search for P. vivax antibodies by the same technique in1,701 samples, resulted in 105 (6.2%) positive for IgM antibodies and in 641 positive for IgG antibodies. Anti-CSP antibodies were detected in 615 of 1,702 tested samples (36.1%). Among these 615, the positive results for each one of the tested peptides were: 433 (25,4%) for VK210, 258 (15,1%) for P. malariae, 108 (6,3%) for VK 247 e 182 (10,7%) for P. vivax-like. Multiplex PCR detected P. vivax DNA in 23 out of 1,527 tested samples, as it did for P. malariae in 15 of them, for P. falciparum in nine of them and both for P. malariae and P. falciparum in one of them. Among 785 mosquito specimens, representing 10 Anopheline species, P. vivax DNA was found in a set of some A. evansae specimens. P. malariae/brasilianum was identified by Multiplex PCR in two of five wild monkeys screened, in one of them also by thin smear. There are two possible scenarios to explain this transmission cycle. The first one bears malaria as a disease transmitted exclusively among human beings by secondary Nyssorhynchus vectors present nearby the houses. In a second scenario, the malaria is acquired after the simian reservoir when the human beings make excursions inside the forest.

Submitted by Wendell Amoedo (wendell.amoedo@hotmail.com) on 2018-11-26T15:15:35Z No. of bitstreams: 3 Tese Bruna de Oliveira-correcaoposdefesa-versaoFINAL.pdf: 9414772 bytes, checksum: 23fd577cbdccab11729ea5da62b18de2 (MD5) ficha catalografica.pdf: 1870 bytes, checksum: 853f822f2c2a4569b1b196a49b10a940 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Submitted by Wendell Amoedo (wendell.amoedo@hotmail.com) on 2018-11-28T12:59:58Z No. of bitstreams: 3 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Tese Bruna de Oliveira-correcaoposdefesa-versaoFINAL.pdf: 9414772 bytes, checksum: 23fd577cbdccab11729ea5da62b18de2 (MD5) ficha catalografica.pdf: 1870 bytes, checksum: 853f822f2c2a4569b1b196a49b10a940 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2018-11-28T18:11:52Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 3 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Tese Bruna de Oliveira-correcaoposdefesa-versaoFINAL.pdf: 9414772 bytes, checksum: 23fd577cbdccab11729ea5da62b18de2 (MD5) ficha catalografica.pdf: 1870 bytes, checksum: 853f822f2c2a4569b1b196a49b10a940 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-11-28T18:11:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 3 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Tese Bruna de Oliveira-correcaoposdefesa-versaoFINAL.pdf: 9414772 bytes, checksum: 23fd577cbdccab11729ea5da62b18de2 (MD5) ficha catalografica.pdf: 1870 bytes, checksum: 853f822f2c2a4569b1b196a49b10a940 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-03-14 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The malaria situation in Brazil and in the world is still very worrying these days. One of the causes of this situation is the existence of Plasmodium strains resistant to current antimalarials. Therefore, there is a need for the search for new drugs, which are more effective and less toxic. Several plant species have been used in folk medicine as antimalarials, such as Cinchona spp. and Artemisia annua, plants that have been isolated from quinine and artemisinin. In the family Apocynaceae, the species of the genus Geissospermum and Aspidosperma, has been highlighted as an antimalarial potential. Thus, the objective of this work was to study the chemical composition and to evaluate the in vitro antiplasmodic activity of extracts, fractions and substances of Geissospermum urceolatum, through a bioguided study. The plant material was collected at the Ducke Forest Reserve of the National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), in Manaus, Amazonas. Seven (7) different extraction methods were compared for each part of the plant (leaf, twig and bark), but method 7 was tested only on the bark. In order to define the initial chemical profile of dry extracts, high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) analysis was performed by direct infusion of the samples. The data obtained by EMAR were treated and interpreted chemimetrically through the Chemoface program. These were evaluated by the plant separately (leaf, twig and bark), comparing extraction method, m / z and percentage relative to the base peak (greater than 5%). The nineteen extracts were tested for antimalarial activity (Inhibitory Concentration 50% - IC50) in vitro, three (3) of the shell extracts were active, with IC50 of 14.5 μg / mL, 12 μg / mL and 9 , 7 μg / mL respectively. The chemometric data were used to find a relation between the active extracts and the chemical profile, where what differentiates this group from the others is the presence of three (3) main peaks: 329,18; 175.18; 217.07. In order to correlate the activity and yield of the tested methods, method 7 (M7) was defined as the method of study, then a new scale extraction was performed, two dry extracts (BOT1 and BOT2) were obtained. Sephadex LH-20 and mobile phase 100% of the 8 subfractions obtained were submitted to IC 50 test, using a chromatographic column (CC) as the stationary phase. and EMAR. Of these, one was partially active (PA) (30 μg / mL) and one was active (A) (1.93 μg / mL). The dry extract (BOT2) was partitioned and 2 main fractions were obtained, both of which were submitted to NMR, HRT and IC50 test, both fractions were active. These fractions were fractionated using CC and HPLC, of these 4 substances were elucidated as: Methyl Sinapiato (S2) (IC50 24.5 μg / mL) and 4-N-methyl-akuammicine (S3) (IC50 27.1 μg / mL ) that did not present antiplasmodic activity in the in vitro tests; aspidocarpine (S1) (IC50 2.42 μg / mL) which showed lower antiplasmodic activity than observed in previous studies and phenyl propanoid (S4) dimer. The bioguided fractionation was efficient in the isolation of substances with antiplasmodic activity in vitro. / A situação da malária no Brasil e no mundo ainda é muito preocupante nos dias atuais. Uma das causas desta situação é a existência de cepas do Plasmodium resistente aos antimaláricos atuais. Por isso, há necessidade da busca por novas drogas, que sejam mais eficazes e menos tóxicas. Diversas espécies vegetais vêm sendo usadas na medicina popular como antimaláricos, como a Cinchona spp. e a Artemisia annua, plantas que foi isolado a quinina e a artemisinina. Na família Apocynaceae, as espécies do gênero Geissospermum e Aspidosperma, tem se destacado como potencial antimalárico. Assim, esse trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a composição química e avaliar a atividade antiplasmódica in vitro de extratos, frações e substâncias da Geissospermum urceolatum, através de estudo bioguiado. O material vegetal foi coletado na Reserva Florestal Ducke do Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA), em Manaus, no Amazonas. Foram comparados sete (7) métodos de extração diferentes para cada parte da planta(folha, galho e casca), porém o método 7 foi testado apenas na casca. Para definir o perfil químico inicial dos extratos secos foi realizada análise por espectroscopia de massa de alta resolução (EMAR) por infusão direta das amostras. Os dados obtidos por EMAR foram tratados e interpretados quimiometricamente através do programa Chemoface. Esses foram avaliados por parte da planta separadamente (folha, galho e casca), comparando método de extração, m/z e porcentagem em relação ao pico base (maior que 5%). Os dezenove (19) extratos foram testados para atividade antimalárica (Concentração Inibitória 50% - CI50) in vitro, três (3) dos extratos da casca se mostraram ativos, com CI50 de 14,5 μg/mL, 12 μg/mL e 9,7 μg/mL respectivamente. Os dados quimiométricos foram trabalhados para encontrar uma relação entre os extratos ativos e o perfil químico, onde o que diferencia esse grupo dos demais é a presença de três (3) picos principais: 329,18; 175,18; 217,07. Correlacionando atividade e rendimento dos métodos testados, definiu-se o método 7 (M7) como método de estudo, então uma nova extração em maior escala foi realizada, foram obtido dois extratos secos (BOT1 e BOT2). O extrato seco preparado (BOT1), foi submetido a fracionamento, utilizando coluna cromatográfica (CC), como fase estacionária foi utilizado Sephadex LH-20 e fase móvel MeOH 100%, das 8 subfrações obtidas, 5 foram submetidas a teste de CI50, RMN e EMAR. Destas uma foi parcialmente ativa (PA) (30 μg/mL) e uma foi ativa (A) (1,93 μg/mL). O extrato seco (BOT2) foi submetido a partição e foi obtido 2 frações principais, ambos foram submetidos RMN, EMAR e teste de CI50, ambas frações foram ativas. Essas frações foram fracionadas utilizando CC e CLAE, destas 4 substâncias foram elucidadas como: Sinapiato de metila (S2) (CI50 24,5 μg/mL) e 4-N-metil-akuammicine (S3) (CI50 27,1 μg/mL) que não apresentaram atividade antiplasmódica nos testes in vitro; aspidocarpina (S1) (CI50 2,42 μg/mL) que apresentou atividade antiplasmódica menor do que observado em estudos anteriores e o dímero de fenil propanóide (S4). O fracionamento bioguiado se mostrou eficiente no isolamento de substâncias com atividade antiplasmódica in vitro.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-22T22:01:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Andreia Montoia.pdf: 3824551 bytes, checksum: 75e621941cc5f0f5383f36e0472f3ec2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-03-08 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / The growing number of cases of resistance to the common antimalarials chloroquine and the ACTs (artemisinin-based combined therapy) favors the search for new substances with antiplasmodial activity. In 2007, the Amazonian Active Principles Laboratory (LAPAAM) at the National Institute for Amazon Research (INPA) discovered the in vitro antimalarial activity of the indole alkaloid ellipticine (10) against Plasmodium falciparum. A bibliographic search revealed that many indole alkaloids of relatively simple structure exhibited in vitro and in vivo antimalarial activity. In the present study, substances that are structurally related to 10 were obtained by isolation or semi-synthesis and their in vitro antimalarial activity was investigated. 10 and 2-methyl-1, 2, 3 ,4-tetrahydroellipticine (12) were isolated from the alkaline extracts of the bark of carapanaúba (Aspidosperma vargasii, Apocynaceae) by column chromatography. UPLC-MS analysis revealed the presence of 10 and 12 in an infusion of A. vargasii bark. Nitration (HNO3/AcOH) and bromination (Br2/CHCl3) reactions using 10 as starting material formed electrophilic aromatic substitution products 7-nitroellipticine (20, new substance) and a 3:1 mixture of 7,9-dibromoellipticine (17, a new substance) and 9-bromoellipticine (18), respectively. All substances inhibited the K1 strain of P. falciparum in vitro as evidenced by IC50 values 0,19 (10), 1,10 (12), 0,43 (20) and 0,30 (17+18) μg/mL. Compounds 10, 12, 17, 18 and 20 were not cytotoxic to human fibroblasts (IC50 > 50 μg/mL). 10 administered by mouth was highly active in the 4 day suppressive test against Plasmodium berghei in mice and inhibited parasitemia by 92% on the 5th day at a dose of 10 mg/kg/day. In the future, 17, 18 and 20 will be prepared in larger quantity and evaluated for in vivo antimalarial activity. / O aumento de casos de resistência aos antimaláricos comuns cloroquina e TCA (Tratamentos Combinados baseados na Artemisinina) favorece a busca por novas substâncias com atividade antiplasmodial. Em 2007, o Laboratório de Princípios Ativos da Amazônia (LAPAAM) do Instituto Nacional de Pesquisa da Amazônia (INPA) descobriu a atividade antimalárica in vitro contra Plasmodium falciparum do alcaloide indólico elipticina (10). Um levantamento bibliográfico revelou que diversos alcaloides indólicos de estruturas relativamente simples possuem atividade antimalárica in vitro e in vivo. No presente estudo, substâncias relacionadas estruturalmente a 10 foram obtidas por isolamento ou semi-sintése e sua atividade antimalárica in vitro foi investigada. 10 e 2-metil-1, 2, 3, 4-tetraidroelipticina (12) foram isoladas a partir dos extratos alcalinos das cascas de carapanaúba (Aspidosperma vargasii, Apocynaceae) por cromatografia em coluna. Análise por UPLC-ESI-MS revelou a presença de 10 e 12 em uma infusão das cascas de A. vargasii. As reações de nitração (HNO3/HOAc) e bromação (Br2/CHCl3) utilizando 10 como material de partida levou à formação dos produtos de substituição eletrofílica aromática 7-nitroelipticina (20, substância inédita) e uma mistura 3:1 de 7,9- dibromoelipticina (17, substância inédita) e 9-bromoelipticina (18), respectivamente. Todas as substâncias inibiram a cepa K1 de P. falciparum in vitro apresentando valores de IC50 de 0,19 (10); 1,10 (12); 0,43 (20) e 0,30 (17+18) μg/mL. As substâncias 10, 12, 17, 18 e 20 não exibiram toxicidade para fibroblastos humanos (IC50 > 50 μg/mL). 10 via oral exibiu elevada atividade in vivo no teste de supressão de 4 dias contra P. berghei em camundongos e inibiu em 92 % a parasitemia no quinto dia na dose de 10 mg/kg/dia. Futuramente, 17, 18 e 20 deverão ser preparados em maior quantidade e avaliados para atividade antimalárica in vivo.

É proposto que vias de sinalização controlem a sobrevivência e adaptação do Plasmodium, nos diferentes hospedeiros. No presente trabalho buscamos por diferentes abordagens estudar a via de sinalização de melatonina em P. falciparum. Para isso, avaliamos os níveis de RNA mensageiro de genes do sistema-ubiquitina proteossomo (UPS) bem como o perfil de ubiquitinação resultante do tratamento de parasitas com melatonina. Mostramos que a proteína quinase 7 de P. falciparum (PfPK7) atua na modulação dos genes do UPS em resposta a melatonina. Avaliamos também se o parasita é responsivo ao ácido indol-3-acético (AIA). Sabendo-se da importância de receptores de membrana na regulação de diversas funções celulares incluindo a percepção do meio externo, buscamos caracterizar um receptor serpentino putativo identificado previamente pelo grupo. Pudemos concluir que a via de sinalização por melatonina em P. falciparum envolve a participação da PfPK7, uma vez que em parasitas nocautes para pfpk7 são irresponsivos à melatonina quando comparados ao parental. / It is proposed that signaling pathways can control the parasite survival and adaptation into the hosts. In the present work we inquire about to study the melatonin signaling pathway trhough different metodologies. For this purpose we have analized post-translational modification of melatonin signaling, through ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) mRNA levels as well as the profile of ubiquitination resulted of melatonin treatment when compared with control. Moreover, we have found here that the P. falciparum protein kinase 7 (PfPK7) plays a major role in ubiquitin-proteasome system mRNA modulation in response to melatonin since parasites knockout to pfpk7 gene do not upregulate the UPS genes in response to melatonin. As for melatonin we have evaluated if P. falciparum parasites were responsive to indoleacetic acid. Last but not least, we made an effort to characterize a putative serpentine receptor previously identified by our group. We conclude that melatonin signaling pathway involves PK7 participation since pfpk- parasites are irresponsives to melatonin.

Le paludisme tue un enfant toutes les 30 secondes en Afrique et 1 à 3 millions de personnes par an. Deux milliards d'individus sont exposés et on estime à 500 millions le nombre de cas cliniques survenant chaque année. Le paludisme étant une maladie multifactorielle, son évolution est soumise à l'influence d'effets environnementaux, à des variables telles que l'âge de l'individu, ainsi qu'à une combinaison de facteurs génétiques. De nombreux arguments sont en faveur d’un contrôle génétique de la résistance au paludisme, mais les gènes impliqués restent encore mal connus. Afin d’identifier de nouveaux gènes de résistance ou de susceptibilité au paludisme à Plasmodium falciparum, nous avons réalisé différentes études génétiques dans deux populations vivant en zone d’endémie palustre au Burkina Faso. Ainsi, des polymorphismes du gène IL12B situé dans une région chromosomique liée au paludisme (5q31-q33) ont été génotypés puis analysés. Nous n’avons pas décelé d’association allélique, mais ce travail a permis de confirmer l’existence d’une liaison génétique dans ce locus. Les données issues du génotypage du gène IL12B ainsi que celles d’études antérieures ont été utilisées pour évaluer les interactions génétiques entre la mutation provoquant l’hémoglobine C et 11 autres polymorphismes situés dans 5 gènes précédemment associés à la résistance au paludisme. En utilisant 3 phénotypes liés à l’infection palustre, nous avons ainsi pu observer 43 combinaisons multilocus significatives incluant des polymorphismes des gènes IL12B, IL4, TNF, NCR3 et LTA. Ces résultats d’interactions démontrent l’intérêt de développer ce type d’approches pour élucider le contrôle génétique de la résistance humaine au paludisme.Une approche par clonage positionnel, suivie d’une approche « gène candidat » nous a permis de mettre en évidence une liaison génétique entre la région 17p11-p13 et la parasitémie, puis une association allélique entre les gènes candidats HS3ST3A1 et HS3ST3B1 et la parasitémie. Ces gènes codent pour des isoenzymes transférant un groupement sulfate à des protéoglycanes afin de former des molécules d’héparane sulfates. L’implication potentielle de ces récepteurs, dans le contrôle génétique du paludisme suggère le rôle déterminant qu’ils pourraient jouer dans le déclenchement de l’infection, et fournit un nouveau terrain d’investigation pour l’identification de gènes contrôlant l’évolution de l’infection palustre. A notre connaissance, il s’agit de la première étude d’association entre un phénotype lié à l’infection palustre et des gènes impliqués dans la synthèse des héparane sulfates. / Malaria kills a child every 30 seconds in Africa and 1 to 3 million people per year. Two billion people are exposed and an estimated 500 million of clinical cases occur each year. Malaria being a multifactorial disease, its evolution is subject to the influence of environmental effects, variables such as age of the individual, and a combination of genetic factors. Many arguments are in favor of a genetic control of resistance to malaria, but the genes involved are still poorly understood. In order to identify new genes for resistance or susceptibility to Plasmodium falciparum, we performed genetic studies in two different populations living in malaria endemic area in Burkina Faso. Thus, polymorphisms of the IL12B gene located in a chromosomal region associated with malaria (5q31-q33) were genotyped and analyzed. We did not detect allelic association, but this work has confirmed the existence of a genetic linkage at this locus. Genotype data from IL12B gene and those of previous studies were used to evaluate interactions between the genetic mutation causing hemoglobin C and 11 other polymorphisms located in five genes previously associated with resistance to malaria. Using 3 phenotypes related to malaria infection, we were able to observe 43 significant multilocus combinations including IL12B gene polymorphisms, IL4, TNF, LTA and NCR3. These results demonstrate the interest to develop such approaches for elucidating the genetic control of human resistance to malaria. A positional cloning approach followed by a "candidate gene" approach allowed us to identify a genetic link between the region 17p11-p13 and parasitemia, and allelic association between candidate genes HS3ST3A1 and HS3ST3B1 and parasitemia. These genes encode isoenzymes transferring a sulfate group to proteoglycans to form molecules of heparan sulfates. The potential involvement of these receptors in the genetic control of malaria suggests the crucial role they might play in the onset of infection, and provides a new field of investigation for the identification of genes controlling the development of malaria infection. To our knowledge this is the first study of association between a phenotype associated with malaria infection and genes involved in the synthesis of heparan sulfates.

Le paludisme reste une des principales causes de mortalité infantile dans le monde tropical. L'émergence continue des résistances du parasite aux anti-paludiques constitue un sérieux problème de santé publique. La recherche de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques, basée sur une connaissance plus approfondie des mécanismes moléculaires de la vie du parasite, est une nécessité permanente dans un paradigme de « reine rouge » qui s'applique parfaitement à la capacité d'adaptation du parasite. La découverte récente d'une métacaspase de Plasmodium falciparum (PfMCA1) et la mise en évidence de son rôle potentiel dans l'apoptose du parasite, fait qu'elle est une cible thérapeutique contre le paludisme. Dans le but de mieux approfondir les connaissances sur cette protéine cible, nous avons voulu, dans un premier temps, déterminer la structure tridimensionnelle de PfMCA1, afin de confirmer les différentes structures prédites in silico, et chercher de nouvelles molécules candidates par le docking moléculaire. Cependant cet objectif n'a pas pu être atteint, à cause d'un phénomène d'autoclivage de la protéine suite à son expression, ce qui fait que nous n'avons pas réussi à récupérer la protéine. Dans un second temps, nous avons étudié la métacaspase de Plasmodium vivax (PvMCA1) en comparaison avec PfMCA1, et nous avons montré que les résidus histidine et cystéine dans la dyade catalytique sont bien conservés. Nous avons identifié un deuxième site potentiel dans le domaine catalytique de PvMCA1. A partir d'échantillons collectés en Mauritanie, au Soudan et à Oman, nous avons montré que les résidus histidine et cystéine, ainsi, que les résidus du second site du domaine catalytique de PvMCA1 sont très variables. Les mutations de ces résidus doivent faire l'objet d'étude approfondie de leurs effets sur la fonction de la protéine PvMCA1. Ce polymorphisme trouvé dans les résidus catalytiques de PvMCA1, doit-être évalué comme marqueurs moléculaires de résistance / Malaria remains one of the main causes of infant mortality in the tropical world.The continuous emergence of parasite resistant to drug treatment is a serious threat to public health. Exploring new therapeutics targets based on depth knowledge on molecular mechanism of the parasite’s life is utmost needed in a paradigm of « red queen», which applies perfectly on the ability of the parasitic adaptation. The recent discovery of metacaspase of Plasmodium falciparum (PfMCA1) and the demonstration of its potential role in apoptosis, make it a therapeutic target against malaria. In order to increase knowledge about this protein, we planned, to determine the three-dimensional structure of PfMCA1, to confirm the different structures predicted in silico, and to look for new drug using molecular docking. However, this goal was not reached, since autoprocessing occurred during expression, and we failed to obtain the full-length protein. Then we studied the metacaspase of Plasmodium vivax (PvMCA1) in comparison with PfMCA1 and, we shown that histidine and cysteine residues in the dyad catalytic are well conserved. We have identified a second potential site in the catalytic domain of PvMCA1. We shown that residues in both putative sites are highly polymorphic in samples from Mauritania, Sudan and Oman. Mutations on these residues need to be deeply studied for their effects on the PvMCA1 function. This polymorphism found in catalytic residues of PvMCA1should be evaluated as new molecular marker of resistance

The disease malaria afflicts more than a billion people and kills almost one to three million of them every year. Of the four species of Plasmodium affecting man viz., P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale and P. malariae, Plasmodium falciparum is the deadliest as it causes cerebral malaria. The situation has become worse with the continuous emergence of drug resistance in the parasite. Therefore, improving existing drugs and deciphering new pathways for drug development are the need of the hour. The discovery of the type II fatty acid biosynthesis pathway in Plasmodium falciparum (Surolia and Surolia, 2001) has opened up new avenues for the development of new antimalarials as this pathway is entirely different from the human host in which type I pathway exists. Although many biochemical pathways such as the purine, pyrimidine and carbohydrate metabolic pathways, and the phospholipid, folate and heme biosynthetic pathways operate in the malaria parasite and are being investigated for their amenability as antimalarial therapeutic targets, no antimalarial of commercial use based on the direct use of these biochemical pathways as targets has emerged so far. This is due to the fact that the structure and function of the targets of these drugs overlaps with that of the human host. A description of such pathways forms the Chapter 1 of the thesis. This is followed by a description of the discovery and the importance of fatty acid biosynthesis pathway and the available literature on the various enzymes that are targets of potential antimalarials. Three isoforms are known for condensing enzymes - FabH which functions in initiation, and FabB and FabF which function in elongation. These isoforms differ in their biochemical properties and have unique roles to play in deciding the membrane composition of any organism. This aspect is also discussed in this chapter. Cloning and expression of -ketoacyl-ACP synthase, FabB/F from Plasmodium falciparum is described in Chapter 2. PfFabB/F is coded by the nuclear genome and is targeted to the apicoplast. The gene is coded by the locus MAL6P1.165 and the putative amino acid sequence of the protein exists in PlasmoDB. All apicoplast targeted proteins have a characteristic bipartite leader sequence consisting of a signal and a transit peptide sequence (Waller et al., 1998). Since the mature protein start site was not known and none of the software packages could predict the site, I aligned the PfFabB/F sequence with the sequences of other -ketoacyl-ACP synthases. On the basis of similarity with E. coli synthases and the mature protein start site of plant synthases, I cloned the first construct of PfFabB/F. The sequence was amplified by PCR and ligated in pET as well as pGEX vector. Expression in various hosts under different temperature and induction conditions could not solubilize the protein in significant quantities and most of the protein was found in inclusion bodies. Next I expressed the sequence with five more amino acids towards the N-terminal and expressed it as an N- terminal NusA fusion. The protein was purified by single step Ni-NTA affinity chromatography. Along with the full length protein (108 kDa), a truncated version of the protein was also obtained. The identity of the protein was confirmed by western blotting using anti-His antibody and anti-FabB/F antibody. In Chapter 3, the substrate specificity of PfFabB/F has been elucidated. PfFabB/F condenses malonyl-ACP with a range of acyl-ACPs. In vivo, acyl carrier protein (ACP) shuttles the acyl substrates between various enzymes of the fatty acid biosynthesis pathway. Enzymes of the pathway other than synthases can accept substrate analogs like acyl-CoA and acyl-NAC’s also in vitro. Acyl-ACPs are not very stable species and thus are not commercially available. Therefore, they have to be synthesized. Since malonyl-ACP could not be synthesized by chemical means, enzymatic synthesis of acyl-ACPs was done. Acyl-ACP synthetase (Aas) or holo-ACP synthase (ACPS) can be used for enzymatic synthesis. Aas is specific only for longer chain substrates; therefore, I decided to use holo-ACP synthase, an enzyme responsible for converting apo-ACP to holo-ACP in the presence of CoA in vivo (Lambalot and Walsch, 1995). When acyl-CoAs are supplied in place of CoA, acyl-ACP is produced. Malonyl-ACP and acyl-ACPs (C4-C16:1) were thus synthesized using holo-ACP synthase from E. coli. The reaction went to almost 95% completion, indicating broad substrate specificity of this enzyme. Bacterial or plant acyl-ACPs of different chain lengths can be resolved by Conformation Sensitive PAGE (Heath and Rock, 1995, Post- Beittenmiller et al., 1991). However, Pfacyl-ACPs synthesized using ACPS did not show any significant shift on CS-PAGE. Therefore I resorted to MALDI-TOF (Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption and Ionization- Time Of Flight) for monitoring the PfFabB/F condensation reactions. PfFabB/F condensed C4-C12-ACPs with malonyl-ACP to their corresponding -ketoacyl-ACP products, with C6, C8 and C10-ACPs being most readily elongated. C14-ACP was very sluggishly elongated, and C16 and C16:1-ACPs were not elongated at all. The condensation reaction was also followed by autoradiography using14C labeled malonyl-ACP, exploiting the clear mobility shift between malonyl-ACP and the other acyl-ACPs. The inhibitory effect of cerulenin, a known inhibitor of condensing enzymes was also checked. PfFabB/F also exhibited malonyl decarboxylase activity resulting in the production of acetyl-ACP in the absence of any significant condensation activity. All the enzymes of fatty acid synthesis pathway required to complete a cycle were assembled together for the in vitro reconstitution of Plasmodium fatty acid synthesis cycle which is described in Chapter 4. Earlier studies of Surolia & Surolia have shown that C12 and C14 fatty acids are the major constituents of Plasmodium lipids. One of my objectives was to determine the maximum length of the acyl ACP product that is synthesized when all the functionally active enzymes of fatty acid synthesis are put together (Kapoor et. al, 2001, Sharma et al., 2003, Karmodiya and Surolia, 2006). Condensing enzymes have a deterministic role in the fatty acid composition as they catalyze the only irreversible step in fatty acid biosynthesis. By analyzing products of the elongation cycle by mass spectrometry it was apparent that C14-ACP is the longest species formed. As already mentioned, PfFabB/F readily elongates C12-ACP but C14-ACP is weakly elongated. Thus the end product of the Plasmodium FAB pathway is influenced by the substrate specificity of PfFabB/F. This confirms the role of PfFabB/F as a decisive enzyme in determining the length of fatty acids synthesized. The inhibition of the cycle by cerulenin and triclosan is also described in this chapter. Chapter 5 describes the ability of the PffabB/F gene to complement for the mutation of condensing enzymes in CY244 cells (fabBtsfabF-, Yasuno et al., 2004). CY244 cells were transformed with pBAD alone or PfFabB/F cloned in pBAD vector (pBADPffabB/F) and the growth was monitored at non-permissive temperature. The product of PfFabB/F could rescue the growth of mutant cells at high temperature but only in the presence of oleic acid. FabB and FabF are the isoforms of condensing enzymes involved in elongation of the fatty acid synthesis cycle but they have a unique role to play (Garwin et al., 1980). FabB is responsible for unsaturated fatty acid synthesis, and fabB-mutants require oleic acid supplementation for growth. FabF is utilized in temperature regulation of membrane fluidity and E. coli FabF elevates the level of C18:1 or cis-vaccenic acid at lower growth temperature but FabF-mutants have no growth phenotype (Ulrich et al., 1983). Rescue of CY244 cells in the presence of oleic acid supplementation indicated that the PffabB/F gene behaves like FabF and not FabB. Analysis of the fatty acid composition of membrane lipids of CY244 cells transformed with pBAD vector or pBADPffabB/F by GC-MS demonstrated no elevated levels of cis-vaccenic acid in transformed cells. This observation is in agreement with the in vitro determined substrate specificity data which shows that PfFabB/F does not elongate C16:1ACP. The thesis ends with a summary of the findings in Chapter 6 in the context of FabB and FabF enzymes known from other sources. 2, 4, 4’-Trichloro-2’hydroxydiphenylether, commonly known as triclosan, has been used as a topical antibacterial agent for decades. I determined its efficacy in treating acute systemic bacterial infection in mouse model. Triclosan, as compared to other well known antibiotics, could extend the survival time of mice by 48 hours. This work is described in Appendix I. (Sharma et al., 2003)

The thesis deals with X-ray crystallographic analysis of two enzymes involved in the fatty acid biosynthesis pathway, known as Fatty Acid Synthase or FAS, of the malarial parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, in order to understand their functions at the atomic level and to provide structural basis for the rational design of antimalarial compounds. Targeting highly specific and well-characterized biochemical pathways to develop effective therapeutic agents has the advantage of designing new drugs or modifying the existing ones based on the details of the known features of the processes. Knowledge of the three-dimensional structures of the molecules involved in the reactions will enhance the capabilities of this procedure. The recently identified fatty acid biosynthesis pathway in Plasmodium falciparum is undoubtedly an attractive target for drug development as it differs from that in humans. In the malarial parasite, each reaction of the pathway is catalyzed by a specific enzyme whereas in humans, the synthesis is carried out by a single multidomain enzyme. Essentially each step in the FAS of P. falciparum can be a potential target to prevent the growth of the parasite as the fatty acids are essential for the formation of the cell membrane which is vital for its survival. All the reactions of this pathway have been well-characterized. Nevertheless, there is a dearth of structural information of the proteins involved in performing various functions in this pathway. When this work was initiated, crystal structures of none of these proteins were reported. The current work on the plasmodial FAS proteins has been undertaken with a view to obtain precise structural details of their reaction and inhibition mechanisms. The introductory chapter of the thesis includes a discussion on malaria, the fatty acid biosynthesis in various organisms and an overview of the structural features of the enzymes involved in the pathway that have been characterized from other organisms.The second chapter includes the tools of X-ray crystallography that were used for structural studies of the present work. It also discusses the other computational and biophysical methods used to further characterize the enzymes under study. FabI, the enoyl acyl carrier protein reductase, that regulates the third step in FAS has been crystallized as a binary complex with its cofactor NADH and as a ternary complex with NAD+and triclosan. The crystal structures of the binary and the ternary complexes have been determined at 2.5 and 2.2 ˚A, respectively. The mode of binding of the cofactor and the inhibitor triclosan to the enzyme with details of the interactions between them could be clearly obtained from these structures. Each subunit of the tetrameric FabI has the classical Rossmann fold. We carried out a thorough analysis of this structure and compared it with the FabI structures from various sources, four microbial (Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Helicobacter pylori) and one plant (Brassica napus), and arrived at a number of significant conclusions: Though the tertiary and the quaternary structures of the enzymes from different sources are similar, the substrate binding loop shows significant changes. The position and nature of the loop are strongly correlated to the affinity of triclosan to the enzyme. Small to major changes in the structure of the enzyme occur to enhance ligand binding. Water molecules play an important role in enzyme-ligand interactions. The crystal structure has also confirmed our previous prediction based on modeling studies of the enzyme that the introduction of bulkier groups at carbon 4’ of triclosan is likely to improve its efficacy as an inhibitor of FabI of P. falciparum. It has also provided the structural basis for its preference to bind to the coenzyme NADH but not to NADPH which was also predicted by our modeling studies. Chapters 3 and 4 discuss the structure solution and a comparative analysis of the crystal structures of FabIs from various sources. The crystal structure of FabZ, the β-hydroxyacyl acyl carrier protein dehydratase of P. falciparum, has been determined at a resolution of 2.4 ˚A. Each subunit of FabZ has a hotdog fold with one long central α-helix surrounded by a six-stranded antiparallel β-sheet. FabZ has been found to exist as a homodimer in the crystals of the present study in contrast to the hexameric form which is a trimer of dimers crystallized in a different condition, reported while we completed the structure of the dimeric form. In the dimeric form, the architecture of the catalytic site has been drastically altered with two catalytic histidine residues moving away from the catalytic site caused by two cis to trans peptide flips compared to the hexameric form. These alterations not only prevent the formation of a hexamer but also distort the active site geometry resulting in a dimeric form of FabZ that is incapable of substrate-binding. The dimeric state and an altered catalytic site architecture make the dimeric FabZ presented in the thesis distinctly different from the FabZ structures described so far. This is the first observation and report of the existence of an inactive form of the enzyme and its unique structural features. Further analysis using dynamic light scattering and size exclusion chromatographic studies have shown that a pH-related conformational switching occurs between the inactive dimers and active hexamers of FabZ in P. falciparum. These findings open alternate and entirely new strategies to design inhibitors to make FabZ inactive. FabZ crystals show polymorphism with varying length of its longest cell axis. We could collect X-ray diffraction data for three of these forms. An analysis of these forms revealed that three flexible loops of the structure including those containing the peptide flips compete for the space between two symmetry-related molecules. In the form with the longest cell axis, the loops have the highest stability resulting in a better diffraction from the crystal. We also performed docking studies with two previously characterized inhibitors of FabZ. The docking showed that the inhibitors bind strongly at the active site each one making a number of different interactions with the catalytic residues. Observations from our docking studies are in excellent agreement with and strongly supported by chemical modification and fluorimetric analysis of the wild type enzyme and its mutants. Chapters 5 and 6 explain in detail about the structure solution of dimeric form of PfFabZ, the pH induced conformational flipping of two cis-trans peptide flips that lead to different oligomeric states, and the structural basis for these oligomeric shifts. The mechanism of action of PfFabZ inhibitors NAS-21 and NAS-91 are also discussed in detail. Intrigued by the hot dog fold of the Fab enzyme, we have analyzed and compared proteins having this fold in their structures. It has been observed that the fold is often associated with fatty acids. However, the sequences, the quaternary structures, substrate specificities and the reactions that the proteins catalyze are quite diverse. The consensus sequence motifs lining the interface of quaternary association and at active site clearly indicated that the information for different modes of quaternary associations is embedded in the sequences itself. The diversity in function and quaternary association of hot dog fold proteins and their structure-function relationships are discussed in chapter 7. Malaria affects hundreds of millions of people worldwide causing about two million deaths every year. In spite of the commendable success of the available antimalarials, it has not been possible to contain the disease completely as the protozoan has become resistant to a majority of frontline drugs. The structural studies presented here should enhance the current biochemical knowledge to develop selective and more potent inhibitors of the pathway and contribute to the ongoing efforts to fight the disease.