<p>Två studier undersökte hur self-efficacy, individens tro på sin förmåga, inverkar på prosocialt beteende i skolmiljö. I Studie 1 besvarade 121 gymnasieelever en enkät, som mätte akademisk och emotionell self-efficacy samt prosocialt beteende. I Studie 2 besvarade 48 gymnasieelever en enkät, som mätte emotionell self-efficacy och prosocialt beteende. Studie 1 visade att akademisk men inte emotionell self-efficacy korrelerade positivt med prosocialt beteende. I begreppet emotionell self-efficacy finns två känsloreaktioner: själv- och andraorienterade. Studie 1 tog hänsyn enbart till självorienterade reaktioner. Eftersom andraorienterade reaktioner saknades, kan det förklara bristen på samband. I Studie 2 korrelerade emotionell self-efficacy positivt med prosocialt beteende, och andraorienterade känsloreaktioner visade sig ha störst betydelse. Andraorienterad emotionell self-efficacy kan antas vara en kraftfull källa till prosocialt beteende i skolmiljö.</p>

Två studier undersökte hur self-efficacy, individens tro på sin förmåga, inverkar på prosocialt beteende i skolmiljö. I Studie 1 besvarade 121 gymnasieelever en enkät, som mätte akademisk och emotionell self-efficacy samt prosocialt beteende. I Studie 2 besvarade 48 gymnasieelever en enkät, som mätte emotionell self-efficacy och prosocialt beteende. Studie 1 visade att akademisk men inte emotionell self-efficacy korrelerade positivt med prosocialt beteende. I begreppet emotionell self-efficacy finns två känsloreaktioner: själv- och andraorienterade. Studie 1 tog hänsyn enbart till självorienterade reaktioner. Eftersom andraorienterade reaktioner saknades, kan det förklara bristen på samband. I Studie 2 korrelerade emotionell self-efficacy positivt med prosocialt beteende, och andraorienterade känsloreaktioner visade sig ha störst betydelse. Andraorienterad emotionell self-efficacy kan antas vara en kraftfull källa till prosocialt beteende i skolmiljö.

Past research has suggested that up-regulating displays of happiness leads to positive social outcomes. In my dissertation research, I suggest that whether the up-regulation of displays of happiness leads to positive outcomes depends on observers’ culture. I developed and tested a model of how one aspect of observers’ culture, analytic-holistic thinking, influences the relation between expressers’ displays of happiness and observers’ prosocial behavior. In two studies, I examined how observers’ analytical-holistic thinking moderates the effect of expressers’ inauthentic displays of happiness (regulated through surface acting) and expressers’ authentic displays of happiness (regulated through deep acting) on observers’ prosocial behavior and trust inferences. In a laboratory experiment (Study 1), observers’ analytical-holistic thinking moderated the effect of project leaders’ inauthentic displays of happiness (vs. neutral emotional displays) on observers’ trust in the expresser, but not on observers’ prosocial behavior (time taken to edit a cover letter). In a field fundraising experiment (Study 2), observers’ analytical-holistic thinking moderated the effect of fundraisers’ inauthentic displays of happiness (vs. authentic displays of happiness) on observers’ trust in fundraisers, intentions to volunteer for the charity organization, and monetary donations to the charity organization. Further, observers’ trust in fundraisers mediated the moderating effect of observers’ analytical-holistic thinking on the relation between fundraisers’ inauthentic displays of happiness and observers’ intention to volunteer. Contributions to the literature on the social effects of emotions and to the literature on fundraising and helping as well as practical implications are discussed.

Humans are exceptional in their willingness to and frequency with which they help one another. However, nonhuman primates also exhibit prosocial behavior. Recently, a number of laboratory studies examining prosociality among primates have yielded conflicting results. These contradictory findings may be due to a reliance on human interaction, tokens, or interactions in the direct context of food, a highly valued resource for animals. The current study examined prosocial behavior among capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) in a tool task designed to address these issues by examining whether capuchins would transfer a necessary tool to a partner in different payoff conditions. Some capuchins’ behavior indicated that they understood the task, passing the tool when a partner and food were present. Notably, tool transfer in both tasks was overwhelmingly active rather than passive, which is unusual in the context of food; indicating active prosocial behavior is present amongst primates other than cooperative breeders.

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<p>Humans are champions of prosociality. Across different cultures and early in life, humans routinely engage in prosocial behaviors that benefit others. Perhaps most strikingly, humans are even prosocial toward strangers (i.e. xenophilic). This is an evolutionary puzzle because it cannot be explained by kinship theory, reciprocal altruism or reputation. The parochialism hypothesis proposes that this extreme prosociality is unique to humans, is motivated by unselfish motivation and evolved through group selection made possible by human culture and warfare. The first impression hypothesis, on the other hand, proposes that xenophilia can evolve to promote the selfish benefits that accrue from extending one's social network. It predicts that 1) nonhuman species can evolve prosociality toward strangers when the benefit of forming new relations is higher than the cost, 2) the motivation for prosociality can be selfish, and 3) encounters with strangers can be a positive social event since strangers represent potential social partners. This dissertation presents three sets of experiments designed to test these predictions with bonobos (Pan paniscus), a species known for reduced xenophobia. These experiments showed, first, that bonobos voluntarily shared monopolizable food with a stranger and helped the stranger to obtain out-of-reach food. Second, the observed prosociality was driven by a selfish motivation to initiate an interaction with the stranger in close proximity and an other-regarding motivation to benefit the stranger. Third, an involuntary yawning task and a voluntary choice task show converging results that bonobos attribute positive valence to completely unknown strangers by default. These experiments support the three core predictions of the first impression hypothesis and challenge the view that intergroup competition is crucial to the origin of prosociality toward strangers in our species. Instead, the first impression hypothesis proposes that xenophilia in bonobos is probably an adaptation to initiating non-kin cooperation. Because female bonobos are highly cooperative even though they are the dispersing sex, xenophilia might function to quickly establish cooperative relationships with new immigrants. This suggests that xenophilia and reciprocity are likely two complementary aspects of non-kin cooperation: the former explains its initiation while the latter explains its maintenance. Similarly, xenophilia in humans is likely a result of the increasing need for cooperation among non-kin due to enhanced fission-fusion dynamics, population expansion, obligate cooperative foraging and greater dependence on cultural knowledge.</p> / Dissertation

Methods for promoting prosocial behavior in educational settings are many and varied. This literature review presents a context for defining and understanding prosocial behavior, including comparisons and contrasts with other behavioral concepts and terms. Understanding peer factors in the development of prosocial behavior can enhance the development and implementation of peer-based interventions. The four main types of peer-based interventions discussed are cooperative-learning groups, group-contingency plans, peer helpers, and positive peer reporting. Each of these interventions has a place in educational settings and should be utilized with social context and individual student characteristics in mind. Behavioral interventions that improve the overall classroom learning environment and are simple to implement and maintain are highly desirable for large general education settings. The accompanying study investigated the effects of a positive peer reporting (PPR) intervention on the social interactions of a group of 2nd grade general education students by using a modified replication of methods from the Grieger, Kaufman, and Grieger (1976) study. This study evaluated the effects of a peer reporting intervention on students’ social interactions. A withdrawal design was used to evaluate the changes in the level of students’ prosocial interactions across baseline and intervention phases. Visual analysis of the data across phases indicated that the percentage of intervals in which students engaged in prosocial interactions increased during the intervention phases, most notably after the initial implementation of the PPR intervention. Social validity data gathered from the participating teacher, students, and parents, indicated positive attitudes about the intervention and its impact on student behavior. These results add to the existing body of literature which demonstrates the success of PPR interventions for increasing students’ level of prosocial behaviors.

Past research has suggested that up-regulating displays of happiness leads to positive social outcomes. In my dissertation research, I suggest that whether the up-regulation of displays of happiness leads to positive outcomes depends on observers’ culture. I developed and tested a model of how one aspect of observers’ culture, analytic-holistic thinking, influences the relation between expressers’ displays of happiness and observers’ prosocial behavior. In two studies, I examined how observers’ analytical-holistic thinking moderates the effect of expressers’ inauthentic displays of happiness (regulated through surface acting) and expressers’ authentic displays of happiness (regulated through deep acting) on observers’ prosocial behavior and trust inferences. In a laboratory experiment (Study 1), observers’ analytical-holistic thinking moderated the effect of project leaders’ inauthentic displays of happiness (vs. neutral emotional displays) on observers’ trust in the expresser, but not on observers’ prosocial behavior (time taken to edit a cover letter). In a field fundraising experiment (Study 2), observers’ analytical-holistic thinking moderated the effect of fundraisers’ inauthentic displays of happiness (vs. authentic displays of happiness) on observers’ trust in fundraisers, intentions to volunteer for the charity organization, and monetary donations to the charity organization. Further, observers’ trust in fundraisers mediated the moderating effect of observers’ analytical-holistic thinking on the relation between fundraisers’ inauthentic displays of happiness and observers’ intention to volunteer. Contributions to the literature on the social effects of emotions and to the literature on fundraising and helping as well as practical implications are discussed.

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abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine whether dispositional sadness predicted children's prosocial behavior, and whether empathy-related responding (i.e., sympathy, personal distress) mediated this relation. It was hypothesized that children who were dispositionally sad, but well-regulated (i.e., moderate to high in effortful control), would experience sympathy versus personal distress, and thus would engage in more prosocial behaviors than children who were not well-regulated. Constructs were measured across three time points, when children were 18-, 30-, and 42-months old. In addition, early effortful control (at 18 months) was investigated as a potential moderator of the relation between dispositional sadness and empathy-related responding. Separate path models were computed for sadness predicting prosocial behavior with (1) sympathy and (2) personal distress as the mediator. In path analysis, sadness was found to be a positive predictor of sympathy across time. There was not a significant mediated effect of sympathy on the relation between sadness and prosocial behavior (both reported and observed). In path models with personal distress, sadness was not a significant predictor of personal distress, and personal distress was not a significant predictor of prosocial behavior (therefore, mediation analyses were not pursued). The moderated effect of effortful control was significant for the relation between 18-month sadness and 30-month sympathy; contrary to expectation, sadness was a significant, positive predictor of sympathy only for children who had average and low levels of effortful control (children high in effortful control were high in sympathy regardless of level of sadness). There was no significant moderated effect of effortful control on the path from sadness to personal distress. Findings are discussed in terms of the role of sadness in empathy-related responding and prosocial behavior as well as the dual role of effortful control and sadness in predicting empathy-related responding. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.A. Psychology 2012